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Journal articles on the topic 'Viral genetics'

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1

Wimmer, Eckard, and Rob Goldbach. "Viral genetics." Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 2, no. 1 (1992): 59–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0959-437x(05)80322-3.

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2

Gao, Hong, and Marcus W. Feldman. "Complementation and Epistasis in Viral Coinfection Dynamics." Genetics 182, no. 1 (2009): 251–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.108.099796.

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3

Fleuriet, Annie. "Evolution of the Proportions of Two Sigma Viral Types in Experimental Populations of Drosophila melanogaster in the Absence of the Allele That Is Restrictive of Viral Multiplication." Genetics 153, no. 4 (1999): 1799–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/153.4.1799.

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Abstract A minority of flies in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster are endemically infected by a rhabdovirus, sigma. The virus is vertically transmitted through male and female gametes. Two alleles of a fly locus, the ref(2)P locus, are present as a polymorphism in all populations: O permissive, and P restrictive for viral multiplication and transmission. Two viral types are known, Type I, which is very sensitive to the P allele, and Type II, which is more resistant. Previous observations have shown that, in presence of the P allele, viral Type II is selected for, in both natural a
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4

Lieberman, Paul M. "Epigenetics and Genetics of Viral Latency." Cell Host & Microbe 19, no. 5 (2016): 619–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2016.04.008.

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5

Crill, W. D., H. A. Wichman, and J. J. Bull. "Evolutionary Reversals During Viral Adaptation to Alternating Hosts." Genetics 154, no. 1 (2000): 27–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/154.1.27.

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Abstract Experimental adaptation of the bacteriophage ϕX174 to a Salmonella host depressed its ability to grow on the traditional Escherichia host, whereas adaptation to Escherichia did not appreciably affect growth on Salmonella. Continued host switching consistently exhibited this pattern. Growth inhibition on Escherichia resulted from two to three substitutions in the major capsid gene. When these phages were forced to grow again on Escherichia, fitness recovery occurred predominantly by reversions at these same sites, rather than by second-site compensatory changes, the more frequently obs
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6

Smith. "Genomics of Avian Viral Infections." Genes 10, no. 10 (2019): 814. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10100814.

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The poultry industry currently accounts for the production of around 118 million metric tons of meat and around 74 million metric tons of eggs annually. As the global population continues to increase, so does our reliance on poultry as a food source. It is therefore of vital importance that we safeguard this valuable resource and make the industry as economically competitive as possible. Avian viral infections, however, continue to cost the poultry industry billions of dollars annually. This can be in terms of vaccination costs, loss of birds and decreased production. With a view to improving
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7

Gratia, Jean-Pierre. "André Gratia: A Forerunner in Microbial and Viral Genetics." Genetics 156, no. 2 (2000): 471–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/156.2.471.

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8

Stedman, Kenneth M., Christa Schleper, Evelyn Rumpf, and Wolfram Zillig. "Genetic Requirements for the Function of the Archaeal Virus SSV1 in Sulfolobus solfataricus: Construction and Testing of Viral Shuttle Vectors." Genetics 152, no. 4 (1999): 1397–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/152.4.1397.

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Abstract Directed open reading frame (ORF) disruption and a serial selection technique in Escherichia coli and the extremely thermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus allowed the identification of otherwise cryptic crucial and noncrucial viral open reading frames in the genome of the archaeal virus SSV1. It showed that the 15.5-kbp viral genome can incorporate a 2.96-kbp insertion without loss of viral function and package this DNA properly into infectious virus particles. The selection technique, based on the preferential binding of ethidium bromide to relaxed DNA and the resulting inhibi
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9

Adamson, Amy L., Kultaran Chohan, Jennifer Swenson, and Dennis LaJeunesse. "ADrosophilaModel for Genetic Analysis of Influenza Viral/Host Interactions." Genetics 189, no. 2 (2011): 495–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.111.132290.

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10

Ekechukwu, M. C., D. J. Oberste, and B. A. Fane. "Host and phi X 174 mutations affecting the morphogenesis or stabilization of the 50S complex, a single-stranded DNA synthesizing intermediate." Genetics 140, no. 4 (1995): 1167–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/140.4.1167.

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Abstract The morphogenetic pathway of bacteriophage phi X 174 was investigated in rep mutant hosts that specifically block stage III single-stranded DNA synthesis. The defects conferred by the mutant rep protein most likely affect the formation or stabilization of the 50S complex, a single-stranded DNA synthesizing intermediate, which consists of a viral prohead and a DNA replicating intermediate (preinitiation complex). phi X 174 mutants, ogr (rep), which restore the ability to propagate in the mutant rep hosts, were isolated. The org (rep) mutations confer amino acid substitutions in the vir
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11

Kannan, Maathavi, Zamri Zainal, Ismanizan Ismail, Syarul Nataqain Baharum, and Hamidun Bunawan. "Application of Reverse Genetics in Functional Genomics of Potyvirus." Viruses 12, no. 8 (2020): 803. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12080803.

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Numerous potyvirus studies, including virus biology, transmission, viral protein function, as well as virus–host interaction, have greatly benefited from the utilization of reverse genetic techniques. Reverse genetics of RNA viruses refers to the manipulation of viral genomes, transfection of the modified cDNAs into cells, and the production of live infectious progenies, either wild-type or mutated. Reverse genetic technology provides an opportunity of developing potyviruses into vectors for improving agronomic traits in plants, as a reporter system for tracking virus infection in hosts or a p
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12

Schmidt, Kristina Maria, and Elke Mühlberger. "Marburg Virus Reverse Genetics Systems." Viruses 8, no. 6 (2016): 178. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13530539.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The highly pathogenic Marburg virus (MARV) is a member of the Filoviridae family and belongs to the group of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses. Reverse genetics systems established for MARV have been used to study various aspects of the viral replication cycle, analyze host responses, image viral infection, and screen for antivirals. This article provides an overview of the currently established MARV reverse genetic systems based on minigenomes, infectious virus-like particles and full-length clones, and the research that has been condu
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13

Schmidt, Kristina Maria, and Elke Mühlberger. "Marburg Virus Reverse Genetics Systems." Viruses 8, no. 6 (2016): 178. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13530539.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) The highly pathogenic Marburg virus (MARV) is a member of the Filoviridae family and belongs to the group of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses. Reverse genetics systems established for MARV have been used to study various aspects of the viral replication cycle, analyze host responses, image viral infection, and screen for antivirals. This article provides an overview of the currently established MARV reverse genetic systems based on minigenomes, infectious virus-like particles and full-length clones, and the research that has been condu
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14

Franchini, Genoveffa, Richard F. Ambinder, and Michèle Barry. "Viral Disease in Hematology." Hematology 2000, no. 1 (2000): 409–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/asheducation.v2000.1.409.20000409.

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As part of the international outreach of the American Society of Hematology, this review addresses some aspects of the genetics, biology, epidemiology, and clinical relevance of viruses that cause a variety of hematopoietic disorders in human populations. The viruses described here have a different pattern of geographical distribution, and the disease manifestations may vary according to environmental and/or genetic characteristics of the host. Epstein-Barr virus, a linear double-stranded DNA virus (herpesvirus), and the human T-cell leukemia virus, a retrovirus with a single-stranded diploid
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15

Franchini, Genoveffa, Richard F. Ambinder, and Michèle Barry. "Viral Disease in Hematology." Hematology 2000, no. 1 (2000): 409–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/asheducation.v2000.1.409.409.

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Abstract As part of the international outreach of the American Society of Hematology, this review addresses some aspects of the genetics, biology, epidemiology, and clinical relevance of viruses that cause a variety of hematopoietic disorders in human populations. The viruses described here have a different pattern of geographical distribution, and the disease manifestations may vary according to environmental and/or genetic characteristics of the host. Epstein-Barr virus, a linear double-stranded DNA virus (herpesvirus), and the human T-cell leukemia virus, a retrovirus with a single-stranded
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16

Warren, Cody J., and Sara L. Sawyer. "How host genetics dictates successful viral zoonosis." PLOS Biology 17, no. 4 (2019): e3000217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000217.

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17

McGee, Lindsey W., Andrew M. Sackman, Anneliese J. Morrison, Jessica Pierce, Jeremy Anisman, and Darin R. Rokyta. "Synergistic Pleiotropy Overrides the Costs of Complexity in Viral Adaptation." Genetics 202, no. 1 (2015): 285–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.115.181628.

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18

Flint, Jane, and Thomas Shenk. "VIRAL TRANSACTIVATING PROTEINS." Annual Review of Genetics 31, no. 1 (1997): 177–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genet.31.1.177.

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19

Ketkar, Harshada, Daniella Herman, and Penghua Wang. "Genetic Determinants of the Re-Emergence of Arboviral Diseases." Viruses 11, no. 2 (2019): 150. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11020150.

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Mosquito-borne diseases constitute a large portion of infectious diseases, causing more than 700,000 deaths annually. Mosquito-transmitted viruses, such as yellow fever, dengue, West Nile, chikungunya, and Zika viruses, have re-emerged recently and remain a public health threat worldwide. Global climate change, rapid urbanization, burgeoning international travel, expansion of mosquito populations, vector competence, and host and viral genetics may all together contribute to the re-emergence of arboviruses. In this brief review, we summarize the host and viral genetic determinants that may enha
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20

Tallóczy, Zsolt, Rebecca Mazar, Denise E. Georgopoulos, Fausto Ramos, and Michael J. Leibowitz. "The [KIL-d] Element Specifically Regulates Viral Gene Expression in Yeast." Genetics 155, no. 2 (2000): 601–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/155.2.601.

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Abstract The cytoplasmically inherited [KIL-d] element epigenetically regulates killer virus gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. [KIL-d] results in variegated defects in expression of the M double-stranded RNA viral segment in haploid cells that are “healed” in diploids. We report that the [KIL-d] element is spontaneously lost with a frequency of 10−4–10−5 and reappears with variegated phenotypic expression with a frequency of ≥10−3. This high rate of loss and higher rate of reappearance is unlike any known nucleic acid replicon but resembles the behavior of yeast prions. However, [KI
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21

Traina-Dorge, Vicki L., Jean K. Carr, Joan E. Bailey-Wilson, Robert C. Elston, Benjamin A. Taylor, and J. Craig Cohen. "CELLULAR GENES IN THE MOUSE REGULATE IN TRANS THE EXPRESSION OF ENDOGENOUS MOUSE MAMMARY TUMOR VIRUSES." Genetics 111, no. 3 (1985): 597–615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/111.3.597.

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ABSTRACT The transcriptional activities of the eleven mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) proviruses endogenous to two sets of recombinant inbred (RI) mouse strains, BXD and BXH, were characterized. Comparison of the levels of virus-specific RNA quantitated in each strain showed no direct relationship between the presence of a particular endogenous provirus or with increasing numbers of proviruses. Association of specific genetic markers with the level of MMTV-specific RNA was examined by using multiple regression analysis. Several cellular loci as well as proviral loci were identified that were
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22

Wilke, Claus O. "Probability of Fixation of an Advantageous Mutant in a Viral Quasispecies." Genetics 163, no. 2 (2003): 467–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/163.2.467.

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Abstract The probability that an advantageous mutant rises to fixation in a viral quasispecies is investigated in the framework of multitype branching processes. Whether fixation is possible depends on the overall growth rate of the quasispecies that will form if invasion is successful rather than on the individual fitness of the invading mutant. The exact fixation probability can be calculated only if the fitnesses of all potential members of the invading quasispecies are known. Quasispecies fixation has two important characteristics: First, a sequence with negative selection coefficient has
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23

Miller, Craig R., Paul Joyce, and Holly A. Wichman. "Mutational Effects and Population Dynamics During Viral Adaptation Challenge Current Models." Genetics 187, no. 1 (2010): 185–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/genetics.110.121400.

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24

DALEY, MARK, and IAN MCQUILLAN. "FORMAL MODELLING OF VIRAL GENE COMPRESSION." International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 16, no. 03 (2005): 453–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129054105003091.

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The study of viruses in molecular genetics, as biological entities with extremely small genomes, and in medicine, as pathogens, represents an important area of inquiry with significant potential for improving scientific knowledge in both domains. One of the most fascinating genetic adaptations of viruses is the ability to compress their own genomes. We exposit here a formal model of gene compression in viruses and study its properties from a formal-language-theoretic standpoint. In addition to enumerating abstract properties of gene compression for infinite languages, we pay particular attenti
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25

Dimitrova, Z., D. S. Campo, S. Ramachandran, et al. "Evaluation of viral heterogeneity using next-generation sequencing, end-point limiting-dilution and mass spectrometry." In Silico Biology: Journal of Biological Systems Modeling and Multi-Scale Simulation 11, no. 5-6 (2012): 183–92. https://doi.org/10.3233/isb-2012-0453.

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Hepatitis C Virus sequence studies mainly focus on the viral amplicon containing the Hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) to obtain a sample of sequences from which several population genetics parameters can be calculated. Recent advances in sequencing methods allow for analyzing an unprecedented number of viral variants from infected patients and present a novel opportunity for understanding viral evolution, drug resistance and immune escape. In the present paper, we compared three recent technologies for amplicon analysis: (i) Next-Generation Sequencing; (ii) Clonal sequencing using End-point Limit
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26

Hunter, Philip. "Viral taxonomy." EMBO reports 18, no. 10 (2017): 1693–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.15252/embr.201744982.

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27

Hunter, Philip. "Viral vigilance." EMBO reports 9, no. 10 (2008): 948–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/embor.2008.181.

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28

Rose, Noel R., David A. Neumann, and Ahvie Herskowitz. "Genetics of Susceptibility to Viral Myocarditis in Mice." Pathology and Immunopathology Research 7, no. 4 (1988): 266–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000157122.

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29

Shea, Patrick R., Kevin V. Shianna, Mary Carrington, and David B. Goldstein. "Host Genetics of HIV Acquisition and Viral Control." Annual Review of Medicine 64, no. 1 (2013): 203–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-med-052511-135400.

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30

RENARD, ANDRE, CHRISTIAN GUIOT, DOMINIQUE SCHMETZ, et al. "Molecular Cloning of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viral Sequences." DNA 4, no. 6 (1985): 429–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/dna.1985.4.429.

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31

Elena, Santiago F., Stéphanie Bedhomme, Purificación Carrasco, et al. "The Evolutionary Genetics of Emerging Plant RNA Viruses." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 24, no. 3 (2011): 287–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-09-10-0214.

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Over the years, agriculture across the world has been compromised by a succession of devastating epidemics caused by new viruses that spilled over from reservoir species or by new variants of classic viruses that acquired new virulence factors or changed their epidemiological patterns. Viral emergence is usually associated with ecological change or with agronomical practices bringing together reservoirs and crop species. The complete picture is, however, much more complex, and results from an evolutionary process in which the main players are ecological factors, viruses' genetic plasticity, an
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32

Jouanguy, Emmanuelle. "Human genetic basis of fulminant viral hepatitis." Human Genetics 139, no. 6-7 (2020): 877–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00439-020-02166-y.

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33

Andrade Júnior, Dahir Ramos de, and Dahir Ramos de Andrade. "The influence of the human genome on chronic viral hepatitis outcome." Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo 46, no. 3 (2004): 119–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652004000300001.

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The mechanisms that determine viral clearance or viral persistence in chronic viral hepatitis have yet to be identified. Recent advances in molecular genetics have permitted the detection of variations in immune response, often associated with polymorphism in the human genome. Differences in host susceptibility to infectious disease and disease severity cannot be attributed solely to the virulence of microbial agents. Several recent advances concerning the influence of human genes in chronic viral hepatitis B and C are discussed in this article: a) the associations between human leukocyte anti
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34

Aubry, Fabien, Antoine Nougairède, Lauriane de Fabritus, Gilles Querat, Ernest A. Gould, and Xavier de Lamballerie. "Single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses generated in days using infectious subgenomic amplicons." Journal of General Virology 95, no. 11 (2014): 2462–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.068023-0.

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Reverse genetics is a key methodology for producing genetically modified RNA viruses and deciphering cellular and viral biological properties, but methods based on the preparation of plasmid-based complete viral genomes are laborious and unpredictable. Here, both wild-type and genetically modified infectious RNA viruses were generated in days using the newly described ISA (infectious-subgenomic-amplicons) method. This new versatile and simple procedure may enhance our capacity to obtain infectious RNA viruses from PCR-amplified genetic material.
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35

Edridge, Deijs, van Zeggeren, et al. "Viral Metagenomics on Cerebrospinal Fluid." Genes 10, no. 5 (2019): 332. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10050332.

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Identifying the causative pathogen in central nervous system (CNS) infections is crucial for patient management and prognosis. Many viruses can cause CNS infections, yet screening for each individually is costly and time-consuming. Most metagenomic assays can theoretically detect all pathogens, but often fail to detect viruses because of their small genome and low viral load. Viral metagenomics overcomes this by enrichment of the viral genomic content in a sample. VIDISCA-NGS is one of the available workflows for viral metagenomics, which requires only a small input volume and allows multiplex
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36

Koch, Linda. "Marine genomics goes viral." Nature Reviews Genetics 17, no. 11 (2016): 660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrg.2016.130.

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37

Casanova, Jean-Laurent, and Laurent Abel. "Mechanisms of viral inflammation and disease in humans." Science 374, no. 6571 (2021): 1080–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abj7965.

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Disease and accompanying inflammation are uncommon outcomes of viral infection in humans. Clinical inflammation occurs if steady-state cell-intrinsic and leukocytic immunity to viruses fails. Inflammation attests to the attempts of newly recruited and activated leukocytes to resolve infection in the blood or tissues. In the confusing battle between a myriad of viruses and cells, studies of human genetics can separate the root cause of inflammation and disease from its consequences. Single-gene inborn errors of cell-intrinsic or leukocytic immunity underlying diverse infections in the skin, bra
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38

Lin, Sheng-Chieh, Geng-Hao Bai, Pei-Chun Lin, et al. "Molecular and Genetics-Based Systems for Tracing the Evolution and Exploring the Mechanisms of Human Norovirus Infections." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 10 (2023): 9093. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24109093.

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Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are major causes of acute gastroenteritis around the world. The high mutation rate and recombination potential of noroviruses are significant challenges in studying the genetic diversity and evolution pattern of novel strains. In this review, we describe recent advances in the development of technologies for not only the detection but also the analysis of complete genome sequences of noroviruses and the future prospects of detection methods for tracing the evolution and genetic diversity of human noroviruses. The mechanisms of HuNoV infection and the development of an
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39

Tsai, W.-L., and R. T. Chung. "Viral hepatocarcinogenesis." Oncogene 29, no. 16 (2010): 2309–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/onc.2010.36.

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40

RAGNI, M. V., K. E. SHERMAN, and J. A. JORDAN. "Viral pathogens." Haemophilia 16 (June 22, 2010): 40–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2516.2010.02292.x.

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41

Domingo, Esteban, and Celia Perales. "Viral quasispecies." PLOS Genetics 15, no. 10 (2019): e1008271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1008271.

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42

Laman, Heike, David J. Mann, and Nic C. Jones. "Viral-encoded cyclins." Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 10, no. 1 (2000): 70–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0959-437x(99)00045-3.

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43

Pybus, Oliver G., Andrew Rambaut, and Paul H. Harvey. "An Integrated Framework for the Inference of Viral Population History From Reconstructed Genealogies." Genetics 155, no. 3 (2000): 1429–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/155.3.1429.

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Abstract We describe a unified set of methods for the inference of demographic history using genealogies reconstructed from gene sequence data. We introduce the skyline plot, a graphical, nonparametric estimate of demographic history. We discuss both maximum-likelihood parameter estimation and demographic hypothesis testing. Simulations are carried out to investigate the statistical properties of maximum-likelihood estimates of demographic parameters. The simulations reveal that (i) the performance of exponential growth model estimates is determined by a simple function of the true parameter v
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44

Oldstone, Michael B. A. "Viral persistence." Cell 56, no. 4 (1989): 517–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(89)90573-4.

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45

Fleuriet, Annie. "Evolution of the Proportions of Two Sigma Viral Types in Experimental Populations ofDrosophila melanogaster." Genetics 157, no. 1 (2001): 455–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/157.1.455.

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46

Mallal, Simon. "Host genetics unplugged: removing the camouflage of viral adaptation." Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS 1, no. 3 (2006): 218–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.coh.0000221595.34165.6f.

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47

Heim, Markus H., Pierre-Yves Bochud, and Jacob George. "Host – hepatitis C viral interactions: The role of genetics." Journal of Hepatology 65, no. 1 (2016): S22—S32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2016.07.037.

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48

Wang, Mengyi, Jinyan Wu, Xiaoan Cao, et al. "Developments in Negative-Strand RNA Virus Reverse Genetics." Microorganisms 12, no. 3 (2024): 559. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12030559.

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Many epidemics are caused by negative-stranded RNA viruses, leading to serious disease outbreaks that threaten human life and health. These viruses also have a significant impact on animal husbandry, resulting in substantial economic losses and jeopardizing global food security and the sustainable livelihoods of farmers. However, the pathogenic and infection mechanism of most negative-stranded RNA viruses remain unclear. Reverse genetics systems are the most powerful tools for studying viral protein function, viral gene expression regulation, viral pathogenesis, and the generation of engineere
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49

Saelao, Perot, Ying Wang, Ganrea Chanthavixay, et al. "Genetics and Genomic Regions Affecting Response to Newcastle Disease Virus Infection under Heat Stress in Layer Chickens." Genes 10, no. 1 (2019): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10010061.

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Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a highly contagious avian pathogen that poses a tremendous threat to poultry producers in endemic zones due to its epidemic potential. To investigate host genetic resistance to NDV while under the effects of heat stress, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed on Hy-Line Brown layer chickens that were challenged with NDV while under high ambient temperature to identify regions associated with host viral titer, circulating anti-NDV antibody titer, and body weight change. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on chromosome 1 was associated with vira
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50

Gilbert, Rosalind, and Diane Ouwerkerk. "The Genetics of Rumen Phage Populations." Proceedings 36, no. 1 (2020): 165. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2019036165.

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The microbial populations of the rumen are widely recognised as being essential for ruminant nutrition and health, utilising and breaking down fibrous plant material which would otherwise be indigestible. The dense and highly diverse viral populations which co-exist with these microbial populations are less understood, despite their potential impacts on microbial lysis and gene transfer. In recent years, studies using metagenomics, metatranscriptomics and proteomics have provided new insights into the types of viruses present in the rumen and the proteins they produce. These studies however ar
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