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Journal articles on the topic 'Void and hillock formation'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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1

Sun, Hao Liang, and Ming Wei. "Stress Migration Induced Formation of Voids / Hillocks in Tungsten Films." Advanced Materials Research 311-313 (August 2011): 1831–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.311-313.1831.

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Stress migration behaviors in Tungsten (W) films were investigated according to morphological characteristics and residual stress analysis. Results show that stress relaxtion induced formation of voids and hillocks strips, which resembles the void / hillock pair observed in Cu film electromigration experiments. Analysis indicate that the formation of chocolate sphere shaped W hillocks is intimately related to the atoms diffusivity.

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2

Zhang, Yuan Xiang, Jun Wu, and Ying Yu Ji. "Prediction of Electromigration Induced Void and Hillock for IC Interconnect Structures." Key Engineering Materials 546 (March 2013): 6–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.546.6.

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This paper investigates the electromigration (EM) induced void and hillock generation in IC interconnect structures. The driving force for electromigration induced failure considered here includes the electron wind force, stress gradient, temperature gradient, as well as the atomic density gradient, which were neglected in many of the existing studies on eletromigration. The comparison of void/hillock formation and the time to failure (TTF) life through numerical example of the SWEAT structure with the measurement results are studied and discussed.

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3

Korhonen, M. A., P. Børgesen, and Che-Yu Li. "Mechanisms of Stress-Induced and Electromigration-Induced Damage in Passivated Narrow Metallizations on Rigid Substrates." MRS Bulletin 17, no. 7 (July 1992): 61–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400041671.

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Narrow, passivated metal lines are generally used as interconnects in VLSI microcircuits at the chip level. In most metals, high electric current densities lead to a mass flow of constituent atoms accompanying the current of electrons. Electromigration (EM) has long been considered an important reliability concern in the semiconductor industry because the current-induced atomic fluxes can give rise to void formation and open circuits, or hillock formation and short circuits between nearby interconnects. The problem is exacerbated because of the continued trend of increasing the density of the devices on the chip. This means that the line widths of the interconnects have been reduced and are now in the submicron range; correspondingly, the current densities have increased and may be as high as 106 A/cm2. Recently, thermal-stress-induced damage in metallizations has also been recognized as an important reliability concern, perhaps of the same gravity as EM. Thermal stresses in the metallizations are caused by the different thermal expansion coefficients of the metal and the substrate. Stress-induced void and hillock formation are the main causes of in terconnect failures before service. More recently, concern has been growing that thermal stresses or thermal-stress-induced voids may enhance the subsequent electromigration damage during the service life of the microchips.For simplicity, this article addresses the case of pure aluminum metallizations on oxidized silicon substrates. However, much of what is said applies to other metal-rigid substrate systems as well, most notably to various aluminum and copper-based metallizations on ceramic substrates. The present treatment emphasizes void formation and growth in the metallizations during nd after cooldown from elevated temperatures, or those due to electromigration in service or testing conditions. Many of the mechanisms we explain are also applicable to hillock formation under compressive stresses, whether due to EM or thermal cycles during manufacturing.

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4

Takao, Hanabusa, Kazuya Kusaka, Kenta Kaneko, Osamu Sakata, and Nishida Masayuki. "Stress-Assisted Atomic Migration in Thin Copper Films." Key Engineering Materials 353-358 (September 2007): 671–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.353-358.671.

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Stress-assisted atomic migration occurs in thin films due to thermal stress development, followed by hillock and void formation on a film surface. Relation between thermal stresses and hillock formation was investigated on copper films with and without passivation layer. Copper films with a thickness of 10, 50 and 100 nm on oxidized silicon wafer were prepared for investigating thermal stress and hillock formation. In-situ thermal stress observation by X-ray measurement revealed that compressive stresses develop in an early stage of heating followed by a sudden decrease in the temperature region between 100 and 200 deg. In a cooling stage, stresses in a film linearly changed with decreasing temperature to form a tensile residual stress state. Surface morphology is observed by optical microscope and SEM after the heat cycle as well as at elevated temperatures in a vacuum chamber. Dome-like swells were formed on an AlN passivation layer. Almost of all of the swells on 100 nm thick film collapsed after the heat treatment up to 350 deg whereas the swells on 10 nm thick film had no collapse excepting a few case. Comparing with the film without passivation, the swell is considered to be the result of atomic migration of copper film to form hillocks in the interface between copper film and AlN passivation film during heating. Atoms are considered to migrate reversibly into the copper film in the cooling stage, resulting to make vacant hall in the swell of AlN film and then collapse due to tensile stress development.

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5

Mansourian, Ali, Seyed Amir Paknejad, Qiannan Wen, Khalid Khtatba, Anatoly Zayats, and Samjid H. Mannan. "Electromigration Phenomena in Sintered Nanoparticle Ag Systems Under High Current Density." Additional Conferences (Device Packaging, HiTEC, HiTEN, and CICMT) 2015, HiTEN (January 1, 2015): 000059–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4071/hiten-session2-paper2_3.

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Electromigration (EM) refers to the movement of atoms inside a conductor due to momentum exchange with the conduction electrons. In this work the EM effect in samples of porous Ag fabricated from nanoparticles of Ag in a pressure free sintering process is studied. Current densities of 2.5×104 − 1.7×105 A/cm2 were applied to the samples for periods ranging up to 500 h. In a typical EM setup with a non-porous conductor, void formation occurs at the cathode and hillock formation at the anode. In this study, voids were not directly observed, but cracks were formed after prolonged electromigration, presumably as a result of void accumulation and coalescence. When the samples were placed in 150 °C ambient no hillocks were observed, but at room temperature nanorods were formed with sizes ranging up to 20 μm in length, typically 25 nm in diameter and with aspect ratios ranging from 20 to 1000. It was found that interrupting and restarting the current resulted in growth of new nanorods rather than growth of existing ones, and that growth was limited by welding of individual nanorods when a critical number density was reached. While similar nanorods have been formed from Ag thin films using thermal stress , the location of nanorods was unusual in that while the number density was highest at the anode, significant numbers also appeared at central and cathode locations. Another unusual feature of the observed EM was that the initial porous structure became refined with coarse pores and grains transforming into a fine grained and fine pored structure with elongated and locally orientated pores and grains. Elemental composition studies provide tentative understanding of the nanorod number density, size distribution and growth mechanism. In the geometry utilized for this study, temperature gradients are known to strongly influence the divergence of the EM induced atomic flux and hence resistivity measurements and COMSOL Finite Element modelling was used to determine the temperature in the sample taking into account joule heating, convection and conduction processes.

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6

Takaya, Ryuji, Kazuhiko Sasagawa, Takeshi Moriwaki, and Kazuhiro Fujisaki. "Computational evaluation of optimal reservoir and sink lengths for threshold current density of electromigration damage considering void and hillock formation." Microelectronics Reliability 118 (March 2021): 114060. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.microrel.2021.114060.

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7

Thouless, M. D., J. Gupta, and J. M. E. Harper. "Stress development and relaxation in copper films during thermal cycling." Journal of Materials Research 8, no. 8 (August 1993): 1845–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1993.1845.

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The reliability of integrated-circuit wiring depends strongly on the development and relaxation of stresses that promote void and hillock formation. In this paper an analysis based on existing models of creep is presented that predicts the stresses developed in thin blanket films of copper on Si wafers subjected to thermal cycling. The results are portrayed on deformation-mechanism maps that identify the dominant mechanisms expected to operate during thermal cycling. These predictions are compared with temperature-ramped and isothermal stress measurements for a 1 μm-thick sputtered Cu film in the temperature range 25–450 °C. The models successfully predict both the rate of stress relaxation when the film is held at a constant temperature and the stress-temperature hysteresis generated during thermal cycling. For 1 μm-thick Cu films cycled in the temperature range 25–450 °C, the deformation maps indicate that grain-boundary diffusion controls the stress relief at higher temperatures (>300 °C) when only a low stress can be sustained in the films, power-law creep is important at intermediate temperatures and determines the maximum compressive stress, and that if yield by dislocation glide (low-temperature plasticity) occurs, it will do so only at the lowest temperatures (<100 °C). This last mechanism did not appear to be operating in the film studied for this project.

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8

Kitchen, D. R., S. L. Linder, R. E. Omlor, and P. F. Lloyd. "Crystallographic orientation of aluminum whiskers formed by electromigration using transmission electron microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 45 (August 1987): 370–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100126640.

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Electromigration is a well known phenomenon in the aluminum films of an integrated circuit and occurs at elevated temperatures under the influence of current densities exceeding 10 amps/cm2. The failure modes are characteristically cracks, voids or hillocks in the metal lines, causing open-circuits. The majority of research in the electromigration of aluminum conductors examines the formation of these voids and hillocks in the linestripes. This is unfortunate since experiments have shown that short-circuits caused by whisker formation between adjacent stripes or between multi-level structures can be equally damaging to device performance. Most previous work has involved examining whiskers grown by annealing, however, very little work has been carried out on whiskers produced by electromigration. In this investigation aluminum whiskers formed by electromigration were studied with a transmission electron microsope to determine their crystallographic orientation.

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9

Song-Sheng Tan, M. L. Reed, Hongtao Han, and R. Boudreau. "Mechanisms of etch hillock formation." Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems 5, no. 1 (March 1996): 66–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/84.485218.

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10

Valencia, Felipe J., Rafael I. González, Eduardo M. Bringa, and Miguel Kiwi. "Hillock formation on nanocrystalline diamond." Carbon 119 (August 2017): 219–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2017.04.020.

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11

Ayo, S. H., and J. I. Kreisberg. "Heparin increases hillock formation in mesangial cell cultures." Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2, no. 6 (December 1991): 1153–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/asn.v261153.

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Mesangial cells in culture develop hillocks, which are composed of aggregates of cells, necrotic cellular debris, and extracellular matrix material. The significance and mechanism of their formation are unknown. To determine whether a proliferative component is involved in hillock formation, cells were treated with heparin or irradiated to inhibit proliferation. Heparin caused a 50% inhibition of mesangial cell growth and stimulated hillock formation three-fold to fourfold. Irradiated cells developed hillocks to the same extent as did nonirradiated cells, and the addition of heparin also increased hillock formation threefold to fourfold. Dextran sulfate and chondroitin B sulfate had no effect on mesangial cell hillock formation. Mesangial cells cultured in the presence of 50 micrograms/mL of heparin were less tightly adhered than nontreated cells, as assessed by a trypsin adhesion assay (control cells, 12% detached; heparin-treated cells, 72% detached). Thus, it appears that heparin, a glycosaminoglycan with potent antimitogenic activity, stimulates mesangial cell hillock formation, possibly by decreasing cell adhesion.

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12

Pico, Carey A., and Tom D. Bonifield. "The properties of thermal hillocks as a function of linewidth and process parameter in Al-on-chemical-vapor-deposited W films." Journal of Materials Research 8, no. 5 (May 1993): 1010–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1993.1010.

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The formation of hillocks has been studied as a function of process parameter in patterned and unpatterned Al98.5wt. %Si1.0wt. %Cu0.5wt. % films deposited on chemical-vapor-deposited W-coated substrates. The effects of linewidth, substrate temperature during film deposition, and sintering time and temperature on hillock size were investigated. Three types of hillocks are found: the “surface hillocks”, the “side hillock”, and the “line hillock”. These are further classified by their shapes. The surface hillock and side hillock, which have been seen previously, form on patterned metal lines having linewidths greater than the larger Al alloy grain sizes (~3 μm). None is seen on linewidths between 0.9 and 2 μm where long-range grain boundary diffusion cannot occur. A new type of hillock, the line hillock, is seen to occur on metal structures having linewidths of 0.6 μm. The line hillock is inconsistent with the current understanding of hillock formation and may present severe restrictions on the downsizing of ultra-large-scale integrated devices.

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13

Pico, Carey A., and Tom D. Bonifield. "Hillocks on half-micron aluminum lines." Journal of Materials Research 6, no. 9 (September 1991): 1817–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1991.1817.

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A new regime of hillock growth has been observed in patterned Al98.5 W.%Si1.0 Wt.%-Cuo0.5 wt.% films. The “surface” hillock and “side” hillock, which have been seen previously, form on patterned metal lines having linewidths greater than the larger Al alloy grain sizes (∼3 μm). None is seen on the fabricated lines having linewidths between 0.9 and 2 μm where long-range grain boundary diffusion cannot occur because of its bamboo structure. However, a new type of hillock, the “line hillock”, occurs in structures having linewidths of 0.6 μm. The presence of this last type of hillock is inconsistent with the current understanding of hillock formation and may present severe restrictions on the down-sizing of ultra–large–scale integrated devices.

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14

Kim, Deok-Kee, William D. Nix, Michael D. Deal, and James D. Plummer. "Creep-controlled Diffusional Hillock Formation in Blanket Aluminum Thin Films as a Mechanism of Stress Relaxation." Journal of Materials Research 15, no. 8 (August 2000): 1709–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2000.0246.

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Hillock formation, a stress-induced diffusional relaxation process, was studied in sputter-deposited Al films. The grain sizes in these films were small compared to those in other sputter-deposited Al films, and impurities (O, Ti, W) were incorporated during the preparation of the films. Stress and hardness measurements both indicate that the Al films were strengthened by the small grain size and incorporated impurities. We observed a new type of hillock in these Al thin films after annealing for 2 h at 450 °C in a forming gas ambient. The hillocks were composed of large Al grains created between the substrate and the original Al film with its columnar grain structure, apparently by diffusion from the surrounding area. By modifying the boundary conditions of Chaudhari's hillock formation model [P. Chaudhari, J. Appl. Phy. 45, 4339 (1974)], we have created a new model that can describe the experimentally observed hillocks. Our model seems to explain the experimentally observed abnormal hillock formation and may be applied to other types of hillock formation using different creep laws.

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15

Joo, Young Chang, and Soo Jung Hwang. "Effect of Film Thickness and Annealing Temperature in Stress-Induced Damage in Metal Films." Materials Science Forum 539-543 (March 2007): 3520–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.539-543.3520.

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Hillocks were observed in various thick Al films after annealing for a long time and their density and diameter were measured using an image analysis program. The hillock density decreased while the diameter increased with increasing film thickness. The total hillock volume per unit area of the film is linearly proportional to the film thickness and annealing temperature. Based on the results of our investigation, the effect of the film thickness, grain size and annealing temperature on hillock formation is discussed, and an equation that can be used to predict the hillock density and average hillock diameter is suggested.

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16

Mirabella, D. A., M. P. Suárez, and C. M. Aldao. "Basic mechanisms for hillock formation during etching." Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 387, no. 8-9 (March 2008): 1957–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2007.11.028.

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17

Nordlund, K., and T. Mattila. "Hillock formation on ion-irradiated graphite surfaces." Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids 142, no. 1-4 (June 1997): 459–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10420159708211627.

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18

Sasagawa, K., M. Hasegawa, M. Saka, and H. Abé. "Atomic flux divergence in bamboo line for predicting initial formation of voids and hillocks." Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 33, no. 1 (February 2000): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0167-8442(99)00052-x.

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19

Chang, C. Y., and R. W. Vook. "Thermally induced hillock formation in Al–Cu films." Journal of Materials Research 4, no. 5 (October 1989): 1172–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1989.1172.

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Isothermal annealing studies of hillocks formed on Al–15 wt.% Cu films, vapor deposited at 25 °C on oxidized silicon wafers, were carried out in situ in a scanning electron microscope. The original hillocks formed as a result of substrate-induced thermal expansion strains which caused material to diffuse out of the film to form the hillocks when the films were heated to the isothermal annealing temperatures. During isothermal annealing the hillock density decreased and the average size of the hillocks increased. Measurements of these quantities as a function of time were made at a series of temperatures ranging from 200 to 300 °C. The activation energies for these two cases were found to be 0.29 and 0.28 eV, respectively. X-ray energy spectroscopy analysis of the films showed that the hillocks were richer in copper than the matrix. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the average hillock and grain sizes in the variously annealed films were linearly related and of the same order of magnitude. The results were also analyzed using Chakraverty's models for surface and interfacial diffusion. It was concluded that the evidence clearly shows that the observed processes could be well characterized by a typical Ostwald ripening model.

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20

Ерошкин, Aleksandr Eroshkin, Шаронов, Ivan Sharonov, Зыкин, Evgeniy Zykin, Курдюмов, Vladimir Kurdyumov, Долгов, and Sergey Dolgov. "QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SOIL RIDGE FORMATION WHEN SOWING TILLED CROPS." Vestnik of Kazan State Agrarian University 11, no. 2 (July 5, 2016): 72–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/20640.

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A hillock drill was desighned, an application of which makes cost-effectively in one pass to perform sowing cultivation, sowing the seeds, form a soil mound above sown seeds, compact the soil mound from three sides and, finally, form a soil ridge of required dimensions and density in it. The article was justified the attack angles of flat disk of the working unit and the spherical roller-discs of roller-ridger of hillock drill. It was revealed, that the process of soil ridges forming of required dimensions and density at seeding tilled-crops are affected by structural and operational parameters of working units with flat discs and the roller-ridges, as well as the physical and mechanical properties of the soil.

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21

Yamamoto, Yuji, Kazuaki Seki, Shigeta Kozawa, Alexander, S. Harada, and Toru Ujihara. "Stable Growth of 4H-SiC Single Polytype by Controlling the Surface Morphology Using a Temperature Gradient in Solution Growth." Materials Science Forum 717-720 (May 2012): 53–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.717-720.53.

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We introduce a method to grow 4H-SiC single polytype stably by controlling the surface morphology. The polytype transition on on-axis 4H-SiC C-face was investigated from a viewpoint of surface morphology of grown layers. At the area where several hillock-like structures grew adjacently, the polytype transition from 4H-SiC to 6H-SiC or 15R-SiC often occurred. Therefore, we tried a modified seeded method to suppress the formation of hillock-like structures. As a result, the hillock-like structure on the grown layer was dramatically reduced. Moreover, the ratio of 4H-SiC polytype to the whole grown surface was increased to be almost 100%.

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22

Nucci, J. A., A. Straub, E. Bischoff, E. Arzt, and C. A. Volkert. "Growth of electromigration-induced hillocks in Al interconnects." Journal of Materials Research 17, no. 10 (October 2002): 2727–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2002.0394.

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Electromigration-induced hillock growth in polycrystalline Al segments was extensively investigated. Hillocks composed of columnar grains grew near the anode by epitaxial Al addition at the interface between the Al and underlying TiN layer, which pushed up the original Al film. The hillocks rotated away from their initial (111) out-of-plane orientation in a manner consistent with the physical rotation of the hillock surface. Wedgelike and rounded hillocks were observed, and their formation is explained by the interaction between grain extrusion and grain growth. Trends elucidated by review of both thermal- and electromigration-induced hillock studies can be explained by the mechanisms identified in this work.

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23

Martin, B. Cao, C. J. Tracy, J. W. Mayer, and L. E. Hendrickson. "A comparative study of Hillock formation in aluminum films." Thin Solid Films 271, no. 1-2 (December 1995): 64–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-6090(95)06941-0.

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24

Liu, N. Z., and Y. Liu. "Suppressing hillock formation in Si-supported pure Al films." Materials Research Express 5, no. 4 (April 11, 2018): 046403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aab876.

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25

Rahman Khan, M. S. "Hillock and island formation during annealing of gold films." Bulletin of Materials Science 9, no. 1 (March 1987): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02744393.

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26

Glass, W. F., P. R. Teng, and L. B. Haney. "Extracellular matrix distribution and hillock formation in human mesangial cells in culture without serum." Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 7, no. 10 (October 1996): 2230–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/asn.v7102230.

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Smooth muscle cell and mesangial cell hillock formation have been proposed as in vitro models of vascular sclerosis and glomerular sclerosis. This growth pattern is characterized by multilayered ridges and nodules, termed hills or hillocks, separated by less populated areas termed valleys. In this study, it was discovered that an extracellular matrix rich in pericellular fibronectin-fibrils was key to hillock formation. Human mesangial cells were plated onto serum-coated or noncoated substrata in serum-free medium. Subconfluent cells on serum-coated substrata migrated together, forming aggregates, but cells on noncoated substrata remained evenly dispersed. When plated at confluent densities, cells in serum-coated dishes formed hillocks, but cells in noncoated dishes did not. In serum-coated dishes, the substratum underlying subconfluent cells was vitronectin-rich but fibronectin-poor, whereas the pericellular matrix contained abundant fibronectin fibrils. In contrast, the substratum of subconfluent cells plated in noncoated dishes lacked vitronectin but was fibronectin-rich, whereas the pericellular matrix contained few fibronectin fibrils. The distributions of integrin receptors for fibronectin (rabbit anti-alpha 5 beta 1) and vitronectin (rabbit anti-alpha V, beta 3, and beta 5) followed the distributions of their ligands, fibronectin and vitronectin, respectively. Antibodies to fibronectin blocked hillock formation by cells on serum-coated substrata and prevented spreading of cells on noncoated substrata. In summary, key steps in hillock formation are: (1) migration, (2) secretion of fibronectin and assembly of pericellular fibrils, (3) fibronectin fibril-mediated cell-cell adhesion, and (4) aggregation of cells with further migration to form multiple layers. A similar mechanism may play a role in vascular and glomerular sclerosis.

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27

Hashimoto, Tomohiro, Saulius Juodkazis, and Hiroaki Misawa. "Void formation in glasses." New Journal of Physics 9, no. 8 (August 10, 2007): 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/9/8/253.

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28

Lundstrom, T. S., B. R. Gebart, and C. Y. Lundemo. "Void Formation in RTM." Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 12, no. 12 (December 1993): 1339–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073168449301201207.

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29

KITAMURA, MASANORI. "The Antioxidant N-Acetylcysteine Induces Mesangial Cells to Create Three-Dimensional Cytoarchitecture That Underlies Cellular Differentiation." Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 10, no. 4 (April 1999): 746–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1681/asn.v104746.

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Abstract. Prolonged culture of mesangial cells produces multifocal nodular structures, i.e., “hillocks,” consisting of cells and extracellular matrix. Hillock formation is associated with induction of a differentiated phenotype of mesangial cells, with suppressed mitogenesis and downregulation of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Currently, little is understood regarding physiologically relevant factors that facilitate this cytodifferentiation. This study explores whether and how the cellular redox state modulates hillock formation. Exposure of confluent rat mesangial cells to the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an inducer of glutathione, dramatically facilitated hillock formation. This effect was mimicked by external addition of the reduced form of glutathione ethyl ester. In contrast, the oxidizing agents diamide and menadione inhibited the development of hillocks triggered by either NAC, glutathione, or prolonged culture. The induction of hillocks by NAC was correlated with downregulation of α-SMA as well as attenuated activity of the CArG box element (the cis-element relevant to the expression of the α-SMA gene and growth-associated genes). These results indicate that, by a redox-sensitive mechanism, NAC induces mesangial cells to create three-dimensional cytoarchitecture that underlies cellular differentiation.

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30

Mirabella, D. A., G. P. Suárez, M. P. Suárez, and C. M. Aldao. "Silicon wet etching: Hillock formation mechanisms and dynamic scaling properties." Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 395 (February 2014): 105–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2013.09.071.

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31

Al-Shareef, H. N., D. Dimos, B. A. Tuttle, and M. V. Raymond. "Metallization schemes for dielectric thin film capacitors." Journal of Materials Research 12, no. 2 (February 1997): 347–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1997.0050.

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A detailed analysis of Pt/Ti, Pt/TiO2, and Pt/ZrO2 electrodes was carried out to develop a bottom electrode stack for sol-gel derived thin film capacitors. For the Pt/Ti stack, the choice of layer thickness and deposition temperature is found to affect adhesion to the SiO2/Si substrate as well as the extent of hillock formation and Pt–Ti interaction. By using elevated temperature deposition, Pt films close to 1 μm in thickness can be produced with relatively good adhesion and morphological stability using Ti adhesion layers. In addition, Pt films grown on ZrO2 and TiO2 adhesion layers exhibit little morphological change and no degradation in sheet resistance after annealing at 650 °C. However, neither ZrO2 nor TiO2 are as effective as Ti metal in promoting Pt adhesion. Experiments aimed at establishing a correlation between hillock formation and capacitor yield revealed two important results. First, the behavior of Pt/Ti stacks during annealing in air is markedly different from their behavior during PZT film crystallization. Second, preannealing of the Pt/Ti in air prior to PZT film growth actually improves capacitor yield, even though hillock formation occurs during the preannealing treatment. Implications of these results regarding the role of hillocks in controlling capacitor yield are discussed.

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32

Ishikawa, Norito, Tomitsugu Taguchi, and Hiroaki Ogawa. "Comprehensive Understanding of Hillocks and Ion Tracks in Ceramics Irradiated with Swift Heavy Ions." Quantum Beam Science 4, no. 4 (December 9, 2020): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/qubs4040043.

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Amorphizable ceramics (LiNbO3, ZrSiO4, and Gd3Ga5O12) were irradiated with 200 MeV Au ions at an oblique incidence angle, and the as-irradiated samples were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Ion tracks in amorphizable ceramics are confirmed to be homogenous along the ion paths. Magnified TEM images show the formation of bell-shaped hillocks. The ion track diameter and hillock diameter are similar for all the amorphizable ceramics, while there is a tendency for the hillocks to be slightly bigger than the ion tracks. For SrTiO3 (STO) and 0.5 wt% niobium-doped STO (Nb-STO), whose hillock formation has not been fully explored, 200 MeV Au ion irradiation and TEM observation were also performed. The ion track diameters in these materials are found to be markedly smaller than the hillock diameters. The ion tracks in these materials exhibit inhomogeneity, which is similar to that reported for non-amorphizable ceramics. On the other hand, the hillocks appear to be amorphous, and the amorphous feature is in contrast to the crystalline feature of hillocks observed in non-amorphizable ceramics. No marked difference is recognized between the nanostructures in STO and those in Nb-STO. The material dependence of the nanostructure formation is explained in terms of the intricate recrystallization process.

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33

TAGAVI, K., L. C. CHOW, and O. SOLAIAPPAN. "VOID FORMATION IN UNIDIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION." Experimental Heat Transfer 3, no. 3 (September 1990): 239–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08916159008946388.

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34

Friedmann, Yasmin, and Tsvi Piran. "A Model of Void Formation." Astrophysical Journal 548, no. 1 (February 10, 2001): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/318652.

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35

Mayes, Jessica L., Steven L. Hatfield, Peter P. Gillis, and Joel W. House. "Void formation in OFE copper." International Journal of Impact Engineering 14, no. 1-4 (January 1993): 503–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0734-743x(93)90046-a.

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36

Gu, Yizhuo, Min Li, Zuoguang Zhang, and Zhijie Sun. "Void formation model and measuring method of void formation condition during hot pressing process." Polymer Composites 31, no. 9 (December 10, 2009): 1562–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pc.20944.

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37

Bentley, J. "Void Shrinkage and Void Lattice Formation in Neutron-irradiated Molybdenum." Microscopy and Microanalysis 19, S2 (August 2013): 1790–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927613010945.

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38

Mattana, J., S. Jaffer, and P. C. Singhal. "Effects of Macrophage Supernatants on Mesangial Cell Migration and Hillock Formation." Experimental Biology and Medicine 208, no. 3 (March 1, 1995): 271–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3181/00379727-208-43855.

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39

Saha, S. K., R. S. Howell, and M. K. Hatalis. "Elimination of hillock formation in Al interconnects using Ni or Co." Journal of Applied Physics 86, no. 1 (July 1999): 625–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.370776.

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40

Gao, C., B. Zhang, G. C. Rauch, S. Hwang, and R. Malmhall. "Hillock formation-a novel approach to sputter texturing media disc substrates." IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 32, no. 5 (1996): 3765–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/20.538829.

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41

Onishi, Takashi, Eiji Iwamura, Katsutoshi Takagi, and Takashi Watanabe. "Effects of Nd content in Al thin films on hillock formation." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 15, no. 4 (July 1997): 2339–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.580745.

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42

Jang, Kwang-Ho. "Effect of Capping Layer on Hillock Formation in Thin Al Films." Metals and Materials International 14, no. 2 (April 26, 2008): 147–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3365/met.mat.2008.04.147.

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43

Puttlitz, A. F., J. G. Ryan, and T. D. Sullivan. "Semiconductor interlevel shorts caused by hillock formation in Al-Cu metallization." IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology 12, no. 4 (1989): 619–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/33.49025.

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44

Sharma, S. K., S. U. M. Rao, and Narendra Kumar. "Hillock formation and agglomeration in silver films prepared by thermal evaporation." Thin Solid Films 142, no. 1 (August 1986): L95—L98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-6090(86)90311-1.

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45

Almajidia, Basim Hassan, and Shams Ameer Kafi. "Digital Architecture Void Formation In Digital Architecture Interfaces." Al-Qadisiyah Journal for Engineering Sciences 13, no. 2 (July 1, 2020): 109–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.30772/qjes.v13i2.657.

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In the last era of the digital revolution, architectural outputs with distinctive void formations appeared. The development in digital technologies, which adopts solid geometry in the formation of its interfaces. So the void became an integral part of the design at the level of three dimensions, to serves as a fourth dimension of architecture. By connecting architecture with the time, the limits of length, width, and height fade away and change from the limits of place to those of time, and this void shifts out from achieving the aesthetic needs to achieving functional and structural needs. The direct correlation of the architectural void with the process of forming the interfaces led it to be considered as a basic architectural formation unit, and in light of this, the research problem was presented as (insufficient knowledge about the importance and role of the three-dimensional architectural void and the mechanisms of its formation in the interfaces of contemporary digital architecture as a void that generates or creates the design within the needs of the designer and the receiver ). The aim of the research came to reveal the concept of architectural void at the three-dimensional level, as well as revealing strategies and mechanisms for shaping the void in the interfaces. The research adopted the descriptive and analytical research methodology in proposing theoretical knowledge extracted from previous studies of building the theoretical framework for the geometry terms which contains (strategies for forming digital void, characteristics of void in digital output, features of digital spatial structure), and applying it on contemporary architectural models with a qualitative measure that is aimed at knowing the effect of terms on the selected samples and the percentage of their effectiveness in the characteristics of the digital output, and verifying the main research hypothesis which stipulated the adoption of the strategy of forming the digital void to combine the mechanisms of digital formation that is used to create void formation to meet the needs in contemporary architecture. The results indicated that the disappearance of the boundaries between the interior and exterior over time led to the use of the void in the formation of the building’s outer mass at the three-dimensional level so that the formation of the mass is based on that void which is called (design-generating void) and the structure which is created by the void called (the spatial structure), as its formation depended on "geometry" and its methods of formation.

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Shi, Yun Feng, and Donald W. Brenner. "Hotspot Formation in Shock-Induced Void Collapse." Solid State Phenomena 139 (April 2008): 77–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.139.77.

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We present results from molecular dynamics simulations of shock-induced hydrodynamic void collapse in a model energetic crystal. During void collapse, hotspot formation is observed that leads to subsequent detonation. The hotspot formation mechanism is identified as shock energy focusing via jetting. There is another initiation mechanism that arises from the interaction of reflected shock waves with the rigid piston, which is considered to be an artifact. Such artifact can be eliminated by altering the location of the void. The detonation threshold as a function of the velocity of the driven piston is determined for various void geometries. It is found that a system containing a void has a lower detonation threshold than that of a perfect energetic crystal. The amount of reduction of the detonation threshold depends on the geometry of the void. For square voids, there exists a minimum size above which reduction of the detonation threshold occurs. Among voids that have an equal volume, the void that is elongated along the shock direction gives the lowest detonation threshold.

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Jain, Sandeep K., and Gerard T. Barkema. "Rupture of amorphous grapheneviavoid formation." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 20, no. 25 (2018): 16966–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8cp01960f.

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We report a numerical and analytical study of a void in amorphous (small domain polycrystalline) graphene, and we show that the energetics of the void is a balance between the line tension costversusthe increased area gain.

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Krapivsky, P. L., Baruch Meerson, and Pavel V. Sasorov. "Void formation in diffusive lattice gases." Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment 2012, no. 12 (December 14, 2012): P12014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-5468/2012/12/p12014.

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Russell, K. C. "Displacement rate effects in void formation." Journal of Nuclear Materials 389, no. 2 (May 2009): 254–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.02.031.

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SULFREDGE, C. D., L. C. CHOW, and K. TAGAVI. "SOLIDIFICATION VOID FORMATION FOR CYLINDRICAL GEOMETRIES." Experimental Heat Transfer 3, no. 3 (September 1990): 257–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08916159008946389.

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