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1
Druitt, T. H., R. A. Mellors, D. M. Pyle, and R. S. J. Sparks. "Explosive volcanism on Santorini, Greece." Geological Magazine 126, no. 2 (March 1989): 95–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756800006270.
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AbstrctSantorini volcanic field has had 12 major (1–10 km3 or more of magma), and numerous minor, explosive eruptions over the last ~ 200 ka. Deposits from these eruptions (Thera Pyroclastic Formation) are well exposed in caldera-wall successions up to 200 m thick. Each of the major eruptions began with a pumice-fall phase, and most culminated with emplacement of pyroclastic flows. Pyroclastic flows of at least six eruptions deposited proximal lag deposits exposed widely in the caldera wall. The lag deposits include coarse-grained lithic breccias (andesitic to rhyodacitic eruptions) and spatter agglomerates (andesitic eruptions only). Facies associations between lithic breccia, spatter agglomerate, and ignimbrite from the same eruption can be very complex. For some eruptions, lag deposits provide the only evidence for pyroclastic flows, because most of the ignimbrite is buried on the lower flanks of Santorini or under the sea. At least eight eruptions tapped compositionally heterogeneous magma chambers, producing deposits with a range of zoning patterns and compositional gaps. Three eruptions display a silicic–silicic + mafic–silicic zoning not previously reported. Four eruptions vented large volumes of dacitic or rhyodacitic pumice, and may account for 90% or more of all silicic magma discharged from Santorini. The Thera Pyroclastic Formation and coeval lavas record two major mafic-to-silicic cycles of Santorini volcanism. Each cycle commenced with explosive eruptions of andesite or dacite, accompanied by construction of composite shields and stratocones, and culminated in a pair of major dacitic or rhyodacitic eruptions. Sequences of scoria and ash deposits occur between most of the twelve major members and record repeated stratocone or shield construction following a large explosive eruption.Volcanism at Santorini has focussed on a deep NE–SW basement fracture, which has acted as a pathway for magma ascent. At least four major explosive eruptions began at a vent complex on this fracture. Composite volcanoes constructed north of the fracture were dissected by at least three caldera-collapse events associated with the pyroclastic eruptions. Southern Santorini consists of pryoclastic ejecta draped over a pre-volcanic island and a ridge of early- to mid-Pleistocene volcanics. The southern half of the present-day caldera basin is a long-lived, essentially non-volcanic, depression, defined by topographic highs to the south and east, but deepened by subsidence associated with the main northern caldera complex, and is probably not a separate caldera.
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Tilling, R. I. "Volcanism and associated hazards: the Andean perspective." Advances in Geosciences 22 (December 14, 2009): 125–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-22-125-2009.
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Abstract. Andean volcanism occurs within the Andean Volcanic Arc (AVA), which is the product of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctica Plates beneath the South America Plate. The AVA is Earth's longest but discontinuous continental-margin volcanic arc, which consists of four distinct segments: Northern Volcanic Zone, Central Volcanic Zone, Southern Volcanic Zone, and Austral Volcanic Zone. These segments are separated by volcanically inactive gaps that are inferred to indicate regions where the dips of the subducting plates are too shallow to favor the magma generation needed to sustain volcanism. The Andes host more volcanoes that have been active during the Holocene (past 10 000 years) than any other volcanic region in the world, as well as giant caldera systems that have produced 6 of the 47 largest explosive eruptions (so-called "super eruptions") recognized worldwide that have occurred from the Ordovician to the Pleistocene. The Andean region's most powerful historical explosive eruption occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina Volcano (Peru). The impacts of this event, whose eruptive volume exceeded 11 km3, were widespread, with distal ashfall reported at distances >1000 km away. Despite the huge size of the Huaynaputina eruption, human fatalities from hazardous processes (pyroclastic flows, ashfalls, volcanogenic earthquakes, and lahars) were comparatively small owing to the low population density at the time. In contrast, lahars generated by a much smaller eruption (<0.05 km3) in 1985 of Nevado del Ruiz (Colombia) killed about 25 000 people – the worst volcanic disaster in the Andean region as well as the second worst in the world in the 20th century. The Ruiz tragedy has been attributed largely to ineffective communications of hazards information and indecisiveness by government officials, rather than any major deficiencies in scientific data. Ruiz's disastrous outcome, however, together with responses to subsequent hazardous eruptions in Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru has spurred significant improvements in reducing volcano risk in the Andean region. But much remains to be done.
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Zielinski, Gregory A., Paul A. Mayewski, L. David Meeker, S. Whitlow, and Mark S. Twickler. "A 110,000-Yr Record of Explosive Volcanism from the GISP2 (Greenland) Ice Core." Quaternary Research 45, no. 2 (March 1996): 109–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/qres.1996.0013.
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AbstractThe time series of volcanically produced sulfate from the GISP2 ice core is used to develop a continuous record of explosive volcanism over the past 110,000 yr. We identified ∼850 volcanic signals (700 of these from 110,000 to 9000 yr ago) with sulfate concentrations greater than that associated with historical eruptions from either equatorial or mid-latitude regions that are known to have perturbed global or Northern Hemisphere climate, respectively. This number is a minimum because decreasing sampling resolution with depth, source volcano location, variable circulation patterns at the time of the eruption, and post-depositional modification of the signal can result in an incomplete record. The largest and most abundant volcanic signals over the past 110,000 yr, even after accounting for lower sampling resolution in the earlier part of the record, occur between 17,000 and 6000 yr ago, during and following the last deglaciation. A second period of enhanced volcanism occurs 35,000–22,000 yr ago, leading up to and during the last glacial maximum. These findings further support a possible climate-forcing component in volcanism. Increased volcanism often occurs during stadial/interstadial transitions within the last glaciation, but this is not consistent over the entire cycle. Ages for some of the largest known eruptions 100,000–9000 yr ago closely correspond to individual sulfate peaks or groups of peaks in our record.
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Blake, Stephanie A. P., Sophie C. Lewis, Allegra N. LeGrande, and Ron L. Miller. "Assessing the impact of large volcanic eruptions of the last millennium (850–1850 CE) on Australian rainfall regimes." Climate of the Past 14, no. 6 (June 18, 2018): 811–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-811-2018.
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Abstract. Explosive volcanism is an important natural climate forcing, impacting global surface temperatures and regional precipitation. Although previous studies have investigated aspects of the impact of tropical volcanism on various ocean–atmosphere systems and regional climate regimes, volcanic eruptions remain a poorly understood climate forcing and climatic responses are not well constrained. In this study, volcanic eruptions are explored in particular reference to Australian precipitation, and both the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Using nine realisations of the last millennium (LM) (850–1850 CE) with different time-evolving forcing combinations, from the NASA GISS ModelE2-R, the impact of the six largest tropical volcanic eruptions of this period are investigated. Overall, we find that volcanic aerosol forcing increased the likelihood of El Niño and positive IOD conditions for up to four years following an eruption, and resulted in positive precipitation anomalies over north-west (NW) and south-east (SE) Australia. Larger atmospheric sulfate loading during larger volcanic eruptions coincided with more persistent positive IOD and El Niño conditions, enhanced positive precipitation anomalies over NW Australia, and dampened precipitation anomalies over SE Australia.
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Vougioukalakis, Georges E., Christopher G. Satow, and Timothy H. Druitt. "Volcanism of the South Aegean Volcanic Arc." Elements 15, no. 3 (June 1, 2019): 159–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.15.3.159.
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Volcanism along the South Aegean volcanic arc began about 4.7 Ma and has lasted until the present day, with eruptions at Methana, Milos, Santorini, Kolumbo and Nisyros volcanoes in historical times. These volcanoes can be grouped into five volcanic fields: three western fields of small, mostly monogenetic edifices, and two central/eastern fields with composite cones and calderas that have produced large explosive eruptions. Crustal tectonics exerts a strong control over the locations of edifices and vents at all five volcanic fields. Tephra and cryptotephra layers in deep-marine sediments preserve a continuous record of arc volcanism in the Aegean as far back as 200,000 years. Hazards from the volcanoes include high ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and tsunamis. Monitoring networks should be improved and expanded.
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Kereszturi, Gábor, and Károly Németh. "Shallow-seated controls on the evolution of the Upper Pliocene Kopasz-hegy nested monogenetic volcanic chain in the Western Pannonian Basin (Hungary)." Geologica Carpathica 62, no. 6 (December 1, 2011): 535–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10096-011-0038-3.
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Shallow-seated controls on the evolution of the Upper Pliocene Kopasz-hegy nested monogenetic volcanic chain in the Western Pannonian Basin (Hungary)Monogenetic, nested volcanic complexes (e.g. Tihany) are common landforms in the Bakony-Balaton Highland Volcanic Field (BBHVF, Hungary), which was active during the Late Miocene up to the Early Pleistocene. These types of monogenetic volcanoes are usually evolved in a slightly different way than their "simple" counterparts. The Kopasz-hegy Volcanic Complex (KVC) is inferred to be a vent complex, which evolved in a relatively complex way as compared to a classical "sensu stricto" monogenetic volcano. The KVC is located in the central part of the BBHVF and is one of the youngest (2.8-2.5 Ma) volcanic erosion remnants of the field. In this study, we carried out volcanic facies analysis of the eruptive products of the KVC in order to determine the possible role of changing magma fragmentation styles and/or vent migration responsible for the formation of this volcano. The evolution of the KVC started with interaction of water-saturated Late Miocene (Pannonian) mud, sand, sandstone with rising basaltic magma triggering phreatomagmatic explosive maar-diatreme forming eruptions. These explosive eruptions in the northern part of the volcanic complex took place in a N-S aligned paleovalley. As groundwater supply was depleted during volcanic activity the eruption style became dominated by more magmatic explosive-fragmentation leading to the formation of a mostly spatter-dominated scoria cone that is capping the basal maar-diatreme deposits. Subsequent vent migration along a few hundred meters long fissure still within the paleovalley caused the opening of the younger phreatomagmatic southern vent adjacent to the already established northern maar. This paper describes how change in eruption styles together with lateral migration of the volcanism forms an amalgamated vent complex.
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Marzano, Frank S., Errico Picciotti, Mario Montopoli, and Gianfranco Vulpiani. "Inside Volcanic Clouds: Remote Sensing of Ash Plumes Using Microwave Weather Radars." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 94, no. 10 (October 1, 2013): 1567–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-11-00160.1.
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Microphysical and dynamical features of volcanic tephra due to Plinian and sub-Plinian eruptions can be quantitatively monitored by using ground-based microwave weather radars. The methodological rationale and unique potential of this remote-sensing technique are illustrated and discussed. Volume data, acquired by ground-based weather radars, are processed to automatically classify and estimate ash particle concentration and fallout. The physical– statistical retrieval algorithm is based on a backscattering microphysical model of fine, coarse, and lapilli ash particles, used within a Bayesian classification and optimal estimation methodology. The experimental evidence of the usefulness and limitations of radar acquisitions for volcanic ash monitoring is supported by describing several case studies of volcanic eruptions all over the world. The radar sensitivity due to the distance and the system noise, as well as the various radar bands and configurations (i.e., Doppler and dual polarized), are taken into account. The discussed examples of radar-derived ash concentrations refer to the case studies of the Augustine volcano eruption in 2002, observed in Alaska by an S-band radar; the Grímsvötn volcano eruptions in 2004 and 2011, observed in Iceland by C- and X-band weather radars and compared with in situ samples; and the Mount Etna volcano eruption in 2011, observed by an X-band polarimetric radar. These applications demonstrate the variety of radar-based products that can be derived and exploited for the study of explosive volcanism.
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KARACIK, ZEKIYE, and SENGUL C. GENÇ. "Volcano-stratigraphy of the extension-related silicic volcanism of the Çubukludağ Graben, western Turkey: an example of generation of pyroclastic density currents." Geological Magazine 151, no. 3 (July 19, 2013): 492–516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756813000435.
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AbstractWestern Turkey's extension-related Cumaovası volcanic rocks (Lower Miocene, 17 Ma) are excellent examples of silicic eruptions. The sub-aerial silicic volcanism at Çubukludağ Graben between İzmir and Kuşadası in west–central Anatolia is mainly in the form of rhyolite domes, lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. The initial features of volcanism derived from phreatomagmatic explosive eruptions from silicic magma that came into contact with lake waters during Neogene times. Most of the volcanic succession represents pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), known as the Kuner ignimbrite. The deposits are fine grained and laminated at the base and pass laterally and vertically into deposits displaying well-developed traction structures, soft sediment deformation and/or erosion channels in the NE part of the region. Alternate deposits of massive, diffusely stratified lapilli and ash are the main products of the later explosive stage. Massive lithic breccias forming the top of the sequences are the proximal facies of the PDCs. The lava phase mainly consists of rhyolite extruded as dome and fissure eruptions of lavas, aligned along NE–SW-trending faults as well as from extensional cracks that are nearly perpendicular to the main graben faults. Considering the tectono-stratigraphical aspects and geochemical nature of the study area, we propose that the Cumaovası silicic volcanism was produced by extension-related crustal melting during the Late–Early Miocene period (17 Ma).
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Emile-Geay, Julien, Richard Seager, Mark A. Cane, Edward R. Cook, and Gerald H. Haug. "Volcanoes and ENSO over the Past Millennium." Journal of Climate 21, no. 13 (July 1, 2008): 3134–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2007jcli1884.1.
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Abstract The controversial claim that El Niño events might be partially caused by radiative forcing due to volcanic aerosols is reassessed. Building on the work of Mann et al., estimates of volcanic forcing over the past millennium and a climate model of intermediate complexity are used to draw a diagram of El Niño likelihood as a function of the intensity of volcanic forcing. It is shown that in the context of this model, only eruptions larger than that of Mt. Pinatubo (1991, peak dimming of about 3.7 W m−2) can shift the likelihood and amplitude of an El Niño event above the level of the model’s internal variability. Explosive volcanism cannot be said to trigger El Niño events per se, but it is found to raise their likelihood by 50% on average, also favoring higher amplitudes. This reconciles, on one hand, the demonstration by Adams et al. of a statistical relationship between explosive volcanism and El Niño and, on the other hand, the ability to predict El Niño events of the last 148 yr without knowledge of volcanic forcing. The authors then focus on the strongest eruption of the millennium (A.D. 1258), and show that it is likely to have favored the occurrence of a moderate-to-strong El Niño event in the midst of prevailing La Niña–like conditions induced by increased solar activity during the well-documented Medieval Climate Anomaly. Compiling paleoclimate data from a wide array of sources, a number of important hydroclimatic consequences for neighboring areas is documented. The authors propose, in particular, that the event briefly interrupted a solar-induced megadrought in the southwestern United States. Most of the time, however, volcanic eruptions are found to be too small to significantly affect ENSO statistics.
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Dee, Sylvia G., Kim M. Cobb, Julien Emile-Geay, Toby R. Ault, R. Lawrence Edwards, Hai Cheng, and Christopher D. Charles. "No consistent ENSO response to volcanic forcing over the last millennium." Science 367, no. 6485 (March 26, 2020): 1477–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aax2000.
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The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) shapes global climate patterns yet its sensitivity to external climate forcing remains uncertain. Modeling studies suggest that ENSO is sensitive to sulfate aerosol forcing associated with explosive volcanism but observational support for this effect remains ambiguous. Here, we used absolutely dated fossil corals from the central tropical Pacific to gauge ENSO’s response to large volcanic eruptions of the last millennium. Superposed epoch analysis reveals a weak tendency for an El Niño–like response in the year after an eruption, but this response is not statistically significant, nor does it appear after the outsized 1257 Samalas eruption. Our results suggest that those models showing a strong ENSO response to volcanic forcing may overestimate the size of the forced response relative to natural ENSO variability.
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Jiang, Su, Jihong Cole-Dai, Yuansheng Li, Dave G. Ferris, Hongmei Ma, Chunlei An, Guitao Shi, and Bo Sun. "A detailed 2840 year record of explosive volcanism in a shallow ice core from Dome A, East Antarctica." Journal of Glaciology 58, no. 207 (2012): 65–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/2012jog11j138.
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AbstractA detailed history of volcanism covering the last 2840 years is reconstructed from the top 100.42 m of a 109.91 m ice core from Dome A (DA2005 ice core), East Antarctica. Using two known volcanic stratigraphic markers, the mean accumulation rate during the period AD 1260-1964 is found to be 23.2 mmw.e. a-1, consistent with the previously reported accumulation rate at Dome A. This mean accumulation rate is used to date the entire core. Volcanic eruptions in the period 840 BC-AD1998 are detected as outstanding sulphate events. Seventy-eight eruptions are identified, with a mean of 2.7 eruptions per century. Comparisons with previous Antarctic ice-core volcanic records are made to assess the quality of this new DA2005 record. In terms of dates for volcanic events, the DA2005 record is in good agreement with previous records in the second millennium ad (ad 1000-1998). A series of volcanic signatures found in both the DA2005 record and several other Antarctic ice-core records in the first millennium ad (ad 1-1000) appear to validate the DA2005 record during this time period. For the older periods, direct comparisons are difficult between the DA2005 record and other Antarctic ice-core records due to the lack of well-dated stratigraphic horizons.
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Farmer, Jack D., Maria C. Farmer, and Rainer Berger. "Radiocarbon Ages of Lacustrine Deposits in Volcanic Sequences of the Lomas Coloradas Area, Socorro Island, Mexico." Radiocarbon 35, no. 2 (1993): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200064924.
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Extensive eruptions of alkalic basalt from low-elevation fissures and vents on the southern flank of the dormant volcano, Cerro Evermann, accompanied the most recent phase of volcanic activity on Socorro Island, and created the Lomas Coloradas, a broad, gently sloping terrain comprising the southern part of the island. We obtained 14C ages of 4690 ± 270 BP (5000–5700 cal BP) and 5040 ± 460 BP (5300–6300 cal BP) from lacustrine deposits that occur within volcanic sequences of the lower Lomas Coloradas. Apparently, the sediments accumulated within a topographic depression between two scoria cones shortly after they formed. The lacustrine environment was destroyed when the cones were breached by headward erosion of adjacent stream drainages. This was followed by the eruption of a thin basaltic flow from fissures near the base of the northernmost cone. The flow moved downslope for a short distance and into the drainages that presently bound the study area on the east and west. The flow postdates development of the present drainage system and may be very recent. Our 14C data, along with historical accounts of volcanic activity over the last century, including submarine eruptions that occurred a few km west of Socorro in early 1993, underscore the high risk for explosive volcanism in this region and the need for a detailed volcanic hazards plan and seismic monitoring.
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Woods, A. W., S. M. Bower, and M. I. Bursik. "Models of explosive volcanism." Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics 2, no. 3/4 (December 31, 1995): 269–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/npg-2-269-1995.
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Abstract. We describe a series of models which illustrate the controls upon the evolution of an erupting mixture of ash and gas during an explosive volcanic eruption. For large eruption rates, material typically issues from a crater as a supersonic jet which may entrain and heat sufficient air to become buoyant and form a Plinian eruption column. If a buoyant eruption column is able to form, then this column may ascend to heights of order 10-30 km, depending upon the erupted mass flux. In contrast, for low eruption rates, a shock forms in the crater and the material issues as a slow subsonic flow which generates dense hot ash flows. A new model shows that as such ash flows propagate from the vent, the density of the flow decreases mainly due to sedimentation, until ultimately the residual ash flow becomes buoyant. The distance the flow travels before becoming buoyant increases with the mass flux in the current and the mean size of particles in the current, but decreases with the flow temperature. It also depends upon the mass of air entrained into the collapsing fountain. The mass fraction of solid lifted from such ash flows into the ascending cloud depends mainly upon the mass of air entrained into the collapsing fountain near the volcanic vent. We apply our models to predict run-out distances and deposition patterns produced by erupting volcanoes.
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Verkhoturov, Alexey A. "ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN THE STATE OF ECOSYSTEMS ON ATLASOVA ISLAND (KURIL ISLANDS)." Vestnik SSUGT (Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technologies) 25, no. 3 (2020): 139–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2411-1759-2020-25-3-139-150.
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The territory of the Kuril Islands is a chain of volcanic structures and is subject, to certain extent, to volcanic hazards. Atlasova Island is composed of products of the Alaid volcano, which is characterized by effusive and explosive activity. The article analyzes the changes in ecosystems on Atlasov island, which are periodically caused by the Alaid volcano eruption. Large amount of pyroclastic material are brought to the surface during explosive eruptions: blocks, bombs, tephra, lapilli and volcanic ash, which is transported in the atmosphere over very long distances. Ecosystems are affected by pyroclastic deposition over a large area of island land. The purpose of this study was to identify the nature and extent of changes in the state of ecosystems affected by volcanic eruptions from multi-zone satellite images of medium resolution. Analysis of data obtained from space systems Landsat and Sentinel for the period 1972 to 2020, in GIS environment allowed us to trace the dynamics and character of the successions to the affected areas on the calculated values of the vegetation index NDVI. Techniques developed in the process of studying this issue can further facili-tate rapid assessment of impacts on ecosystems at the effusive-explosive eruptions and forecast volcanic hazard for surrounding areas.
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Faria, B., and J. F. B. D. Fonseca. "Investigating volcanic hazard in Cape Verde Islands through geophysical monitoring: network description and first results." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 14, no. 2 (February 28, 2014): 485–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-485-2014.
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Abstract. We describe a new geophysical network deployed in the Cape Verde Archipelago for the assessment and monitoring of volcanic hazards as well as the first results from the network. Across the archipelago, the ages of volcanic activity range from ca. 20 Ma to present. In general, older islands are in the east and younger ones are in the west, but there is no clear age progression of eruptive activity as widely separated islands have erupted contemporaneously on geological timescales. The overall magmatic rate is low, and there are indications that eruptive activity is episodic, with intervals between episodes of intense activity ranging from 1 to 4 Ma. Although only Fogo Island has experienced eruptions (mainly effusive) in the historic period (last 550 yr), Brava and Santo Antão have experienced numerous geologically recent eruptions, including violent explosive eruptions, and show felt seismic activity and geothermal activity. Evidence for recent volcanism in the other islands is more limited and the emphasis has therefore been on monitoring of the three critical islands of Fogo, Brava and Santo Antão, where volcanic hazard levels are highest. Geophysical monitoring of all three islands is now in operation. The first results show that on Fogo, the seismic activity is dominated by hydrothermal events and volcano-tectonic events that may be related to settling of the edifice after the 1995 eruption; in Brava by volcano-tectonic events (mostly offshore), and in Santo Antão by volcano-tectonic events, medium-frequency events and harmonic tremor. Both in Brava and in Santo Antão, the recorded seismicity indicates that relatively shallow magmatic systems are present and causing deformation of the edifices that may include episodes of dike intrusion.
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Faria, B., and J. F. B. D. Fonseca. "Investigating volcanic hazard in Cape Verde Islands through geophysical monitoring: network description and first results." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions 1, no. 5 (September 25, 2013): 4997–5032. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-1-4997-2013.
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Abstract. We describe a new geophysical network deployed in the Cape Verde archipelago for the assessment and monitoring of volcanic hazards, and the first results from the network. Across the archipelago, the ages of volcanic activity range from ca. 20 Ma to present. In general, older islands are in the east and younger ones are in the west, but there is no clear age progression and widely-separated islands have erupted contemporaneously on geological time scales. The overall magmatic rate is low, and there are indications that eruptive activity is episodic, with intervals between episodes of intense activity ranging from 1 to 4 Ma. Although only Fogo island has experienced eruptions (mainly effusive) in the historic period (last 550 yr), Brava and Santo Antão have experienced numerous geologically recent eruptions including violent explosive eruptions, and show felt seismic activity and geothermal activity. Evidence for recent volcanism in the other islands is more limited and the emphasis has therefore been on monitoring of the three critical islands of Fogo, Brava and Santo Antão, where volcanic hazard levels are highest. Geophysical monitoring of all three islands is now in operation. The first results show that in Fogo the seismic activity is dominated by hydrothermal events and volcano-tectonic events that may be related to settling of the edifice after the 1995 eruption; in Brava by volcano-tectonic events (mostly offshore), and in Santo Antão by volcano-tectonic events, medium frequency events and harmonic tremor. Both in Brava and in Santo Antão, the recorded seismicity indicates that relatively shallow magmatic systems are present and causing deformation of the edifices that may include episodes of dike intrusion.
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Kohno, Mika, and Yoshiyuki Fujii. "Past 220 year bipolar volcanic signals: remarks on common features of their source volcanic eruptions." Annals of Glaciology 35 (2002): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756402781816807.
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AbstractDuring the past 220 years, prominent signals of non-sea salt sulfate ion (nssSO42–) concentration exceeding the background level, including both marine biogenic and anthropogenic SO42–, were found in shallow ice cores from site H15 in East Antarctica and Site-J in southern Greenland. They were mostly correlated with past explosive volcanic eruptions. on the basis of this result and published results of shallow ice cores and snow pits at various locations on the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, eight common signals were found, of which six were assigned to the following explosive eruptions: El Chichόn, Mexico, in 1982; Agung, Indonesia, in 1963; Santa Maria, Guatemala, in 1902; Krakatau, Indonesia, in 1883; Cosiguina, Nicaragua, in 1835; an unknown volcano between 1831 and 1834; Tambora, Indonesia, in 1815; and an unknown volcano in 1809. Volcanic eruptions which have a potential to imprint their signals in both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets were characterized by (1) location in low latitudes between 20˚N and 10˚ S, and (2) eruption column height ≥25 km, corresponding to a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) ≥5.
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Shevtsov, Boris M., Pavel P. Firstov, Nina V. Cherneva, Robert H. Holzworth, and Renat R. Akbashev. "Lightning and electrical activity during the Shiveluch volcano eruption on 16 November 2014." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 16, no. 3 (March 29, 2016): 871–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-871-2016.
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Abstract. According to World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) data, a sequence of lightning discharges was detected which occurred in the area of the explosive eruption of Shiveluch volcano on 16 November 2014 in Kamchatka. Information on the ash cloud motion was confirmed by the measurements of atmospheric electricity, satellite observations and meteorological and seismic data. It was concluded that WWLLN resolution is enough to detect the earlier stage of volcanic explosive eruption when electrification processes develop the most intensively. The lightning method has the undeniable advantage for the fast remote sensing of volcanic electric activity anywhere in the world. There is a good opportunity for the development of WWLLN technology to observe explosive volcanic eruptions.
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Truong, N., and J. I. Lunine. "Volcanically extruded phosphides as an abiotic source of Venusian phosphine." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 29 (July 12, 2021): e2021689118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021689118.
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We hypothesize that trace amounts of phosphides formed in the mantle are a plausible abiotic source of the Venusian phosphine observed by Greaves et al. [Nat. Astron., https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-020-1174-4 (2020)]. In this hypothesis, small amounts of phosphides (P3− bound in metals such as iron), sourced from a deep mantle, are brought to the surface by volcanism. They are then ejected into the atmosphere in the form of volcanic dust by explosive volcanic eruptions, which were invoked by others to explain the episodic changes of sulfur dioxide seen in the atmosphere [Esposito, Science 223, 1072–1074 (1984)]. There they react with sulfuric acid in the aerosol layer to form phosphine (2 P3− + 3H2SO4 = 2PH3 + 3SO42-). We take issue with the conclusion of Bains et al. [arXiv:2009.06499 (2020)] that the volcanic rates for such a mechanism would have to be implausibly high. We consider a mantle with the redox state similar to the Earth, magma originating deep in the mantle—a likely scenario for the origin of plume volcanism on Venus—and episodically high but plausible rates of volcanism on a Venus bereft of plate tectonics. We conclude that volcanism could supply an adequate amount of phosphide to produce phosphine. Our conclusion is supported by remote sensing observations of the Venusian atmosphere and surface that have been interpreted as indicative of currently active volcanism.
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Doucet, P., W. Mueller, and F. Chartrand. "Archean, deep-marine, volcanic eruptive products associated with the Coniagas massive sulfide deposit, Quebec, Canada." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 31, no. 10 (October 1, 1994): 1569–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e94-139.
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The mafic-dominated volcanic and related volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, which host the Archean Coniagas Zn–Pb–Ag massive sulfide deposit, are inferred to be the result of submarine explosive and effusive eruptions at depths of approximately 1000 m, as suggested by the presence of volcaniclastic turbidites, the absence of wave-induced sedimentary structures, pillowed lava flows, the sulfide deposit itself, and the incipient arc setting. The rock assemblage includes massive, pillowed and brecciated, basaltic to andesitic flows, massive, andesitic to rhyodacitic lapilli tuffs, andesitic stratified lapilli tuffs, and bedded tuffs. Preserved fragments and delicate volcanic textures, such as angularity of clasts, chilled clast margins, and clast vesicularity, and sedimentary structures are consistent with a subaqueous hydroclastic origin for the volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks. Explosive degasification of magma and (or) lava, in conjunction with fragmentation due to the interaction of magma–water, or nonexplosive hydroclastic fragmentation can account for the observed characteristics in the volcaniclastic deposits.The 280 m thick Coniagas volcano-sedimentary succession, used to reconstruct the volcanic history of the deposit, records two explosive–effusive volcanic cycles. The initial stage of each cycle is envisaged to have commenced with a small fire fountain or boiling-over eruption. Transport and deposition of the fragmented debris along the flanks of the volcanic edifice is attributed to high-concentration particulate gravity flows. The massive lapilli tuffs are interpreted as laminar debris flows, whereas the stratified lapilli tuffs may reflect turbulent flow deposits. The bedded tuffs were produced during the waning eruptive stages or elutriated from high-concentration syneruption flows. Ingestion of water, causing hydroclastic fragmentation, occurred during the eruptive and (or) the transport process. Calm, effusive mafic volcanism, characterized by massive, pillowed and brecciated flows and reworked counterparts, terminates each volcanic cycle. The massive, felsic lapilli tuffs, which host the mineralization, are inferred to represent locally reworked hydroclastic products of explosive or nonexplosive origin. The Coniagas mine deposit may serve as a guide for future exploration of small Archean volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits with a restricted alteration halo.
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McGregor, Shayne, and Axel Timmermann. "The Effect of Explosive Tropical Volcanism on ENSO." Journal of Climate 24, no. 8 (April 15, 2011): 2178–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jcli3990.1.
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Abstract This study examines the response of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to massive volcanic eruptions in a suite of coupled general circulation model (CGCM) simulations utilizing the Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3). The authors find that the radiative forcing due to volcanic aerosols injected into the stratosphere induces a model climatic response that projects onto the ENSO mode and initially creates a La Niña event that peaks around the time the volcanic forcing peaks. The curl of the wind stress changes accompanying this volcanically forced equatorial region cooling acts to recharge the equatorial region heat. For weaker volcanic eruptions, this recharging results in an El Niño event about two seasons after the peak of the volcanic forcing. The results of the CCSM3 volcanic forcing experiments lead the authors to propose that the initial tropical Pacific Ocean response to volcanic forcing is determined by four different mechanisms—one process is the dynamical thermostat mechanism (the mean upwelling of anomalous temperature) and the other processes are related to the zonal equatorial gradients of the mean cloud albedo, Newtonian cooling, and mixed layer depth. The zonal gradient in CCSM3 set by both mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose the zonal sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat and initially dominate the mixed layer zonal equatorial heat budget response. Applying this knowledge to a simple volcanically forced mixed layer equation using observed estimates of the spatially varying variables, the authors again find that the mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose and dominate the zonal SSTA gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat. This implies that the observed initial response to volcanic forcing should be La Niña–like not El Niño, as suggested by paleoclimate records.
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BRYAN, S. E., J. MARTÍ, and R. A. F. CAS. "Stratigraphy of the Bandas del Sur Formation: an extracaldera record of Quaternary phonolitic explosive eruptions from the Las Cañadas edifice, Tenerife (Canary Islands)." Geological Magazine 135, no. 5 (September 1998): 605–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756897001258.
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Explosive volcanism has dominated the large phonolitic shield volcano of Tenerife, the Las Cañadas edifice, for the last 1.5 m.y. Pyroclastic deposits of the Bandas del Sur Formation are exposed along the southern flanks, and record the last two of at least three long-term cycles of caldera-forming explosive eruptions. Each cycle began with flank fissure eruptions of alkali basalt lava, followed by minor eruptions of basanite to phonotephrite lavas. Minor phonotephritic to phonolitic lava effusions also occurred on the flanks of the edifice during the latter stages of the second explosive cycle. Non-welded plinian fall deposits and ignimbrites are the dominant explosive products preserved on the southern flanks. Of these, a significant volume has been dispersed offshore. Many pyroclastic units of the second explosive cycle exhibit compositional zonation. Banded pumice occurs in most units of the third (youngest) explosive cycle, and ignimbrites typically contain mixed phenocryst assemblages, indicating the role of magma mixing/mingling prior to eruption. At least four major eruptions of the third cycle began with phreatomagmatic activity, producing lithic-poor, accretionary lapilli-bearing fallout and/or surge deposits. The repeated, brief phase of phreatomagmatism at the onset of these eruptions is interpreted as reflecting an exhaustive water supply, probably a small caldera lake that was periodically established during the third cycle. Accidental syenite becomes an increasingly important lithic clast type in ignimbrites up-sequence, and is interpreted as recording the progressive development of a plutonic complex beneath the summit caldera.Successive eruptions during each explosive cycle increased in volume, with the largest eruption occurring at the end of the cycle. More than ten major explosive eruptions vented moderately large volumes (1−[ges ]10 km3) of phonolitic magma during the last two cycles. Culminating each explosive cycle was the emplacement of relatively large volume (>5−10 km3) ignimbrites with coarse, vent-derived lithic breccias, interpreted to record a major phase of caldera collapse. In the extracaldera record, explosive cycles are separated by ∼0.2 m.y. periods of non-explosive activity. Repose periods were characterized by erosion, remobilization of pyroclastic deposits by discharge events, and pedogenesis. The current period of non-explosive activity is characterized by the construction of the Teide-Pico Viejo stratovolcanic complex within the summit caldera. This suggests that eruptive hiatuses in the extracaldera record may reflect effusive activity and stratovolcano or shield-building phases within the summit caldera. Alternating effusive and explosive cycles have thus been important in the volcanic evolution of the Las Cañadas edifice.
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Maki, Masayuki, Shinobu Takahashi, Sumiya Okada, Katsuyuki Imai, and Hiroshi Yamaguchi. "Ku-Band High-Speed Scanning Doppler Radar for Volcanic Eruption Monitoring." Journal of Disaster Research 14, no. 4 (June 1, 2019): 630–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2019.p0630.
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This paper presents the major specifications and characteristics of the Ku-band high-speed scanning Doppler radar for volcano observation (KuRAD) introduced to Kagoshima University in March 2017 as well as the results of a test observation at Sakurajima. KuRAD is a Doppler radar for research with a wavelength of approximately 2 cm and uses a 45 cm diameter Luneberg lens antenna as a transmitting and receiving antenna to observe the development of a volcanic eruption column immediately following eruption at a maximum rotation speed of 40 rpm. The maximum transmitter power is 9.6 W and the maximum observational range is 20 km. Observed data includes radar reflectivity factor, Doppler velocity, and Doppler spectrum width. Another feature of KuRAD is an obtained radio station license for observation of a total of seven active volcanos in Kyushu. To assess the basic performance of KuRAD, we carried out test observations of volcanic eruptions at Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan and collected a total of 87 eruptions (20 of which are explosive eruptions and 7 of which had 3,000 m or higher eruptive smoke from vents). From the eruption data of Showa vent on May 2, 2017, it was confirmed that KuRAD could monitor the three-dimensional internal structure of a volcanic eruption column immediately following eruption. Eruption data from Minamidake of Sakurajima on March 5, 2018, showed that KuRAD successfully observed the eruptive smoke reaching a height of 4,000 m, although the eruptive smoke was covered with clouds and could not be detected by optical instruments of the Japan Meteorological Agency.
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Peng, Youbing, Caiming Shen, Wei-Chyung Wang, and Ying Xu. "Response of Summer Precipitation over Eastern China to Large Volcanic Eruptions." Journal of Climate 23, no. 3 (February 1, 2010): 818–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jcli2950.1.
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Abstract Studies of the effects of large volcanic eruptions on regional climate so far have focused mostly on temperature responses. Previous studies using proxy data suggested that coherent droughts over eastern China are associated with explosive low-latitude volcanic eruptions. Here, the authors present an investigation of the responses of summer precipitation over eastern China to large volcanic eruptions through analyzing a 1000-yr global climate model simulation driven by natural and anthropogenic forcing. Superposed epoch analyses of 18 cases of large volcanic eruption indicate that summer precipitation over eastern China significantly decreases in the eruption year and the year after. Model simulation suggests that this reduction of summer precipitation over eastern China can be attributed to a weakening of summer monsoon and a decrease of moisture vapor over tropical oceans caused by large volcanic eruptions.
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Lynch, James S. "Mount Pinatubo—Explosive Volcanic Eruptions." Weather and Forecasting 6, no. 4 (December 1991): 576–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1991)006<0576:mpve>2.0.co;2.
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Yamada, Taishi, Hideki Ueda, Toshiya Mori, and Toshikazu Tanada. "Tracing Volcanic Activity Chronology from a Multiparameter Dataset at Shinmoedake Volcano (Kirishima), Japan." Journal of Disaster Research 14, no. 5 (August 1, 2019): 687–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2019.p0687.
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Routine volcano monitoring increasingly involves multiparameter datasets. Databases that include multi-disciplinary datasets have great potential to contribute to the evaluation of ongoing volcanic eruptions and unrest events. Here, we examine the characteristics of a multiparameter dataset from Shinmoedake volcano (Kirishima) in Japan for the period of 2010–2018 to examine how the chronology of volcanic activity can be traced. Our dataset consists of global navigation satellite system (GNSS), seismic, tilt, infrasound, sulfur dioxide (SO2) column amount, and video records. We focus mainly on the period after 2012, particularly a series of ash emissions in 2017 (hereafter the 2017 eruption), lava effusion, and Vulcanian eruptions in 2018 (hereafter the 2018 eruption). Our dataset shows that the GNSS observations successfully captured the gradual inflation of the volcano edifice, suggesting magma intrusion or pressure buildup in the magma storage region prior to the 2017 and 2018 eruptions. The number of volcanic earthquakes also gradually increased from 2016 toward the eruptions, particularly events occurring beneath Shinmoedake. Tilt data captured a precursor tilt event prior to the 2017 eruption and a magma chamber deflation during the lava effusion of the 2018 eruption. Tilt, seismic, infrasound, SO2 gas column, and video data record signals accompanying periodic degassing during the lava effusion and explosive degassing accompanying the Vulcanian eruptions, which have similar characteristics to those reported for past eruptions at Shinmoedake and other volcanoes. This similarity suggests that multidisciplinary databases will be an important reference for future evaluations of ongoing volcanic activity and unrest.
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Németh, Károly, and Szabolcs Kósik. "Review of Explosive Hydrovolcanism." Geosciences 10, no. 2 (January 24, 2020): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020044.
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Hydrovolcanism is a type of volcanism where magma and water interact either explosively or non-explosively. The less frequently used term, hydromagmatism, includes all the processes responsible for magma and water interaction in a magmatic system. Hydrovolcanism is commonly used as a synonym for phreatomagmatism. However, in recent years phreatomagmatism appears more in association with volcanic eruptions that occur in shallow subaqueous or terrestrial settings and commonly involves molten fuel-coolant interaction (MFCI) driven processes. Here a revised and reviewed classification scheme is suggested on the basis of the geo-environment in which the magma-water interaction takes place and the explosivity plus mode of energy transfer required to generate kinetic energy to produce pyroclasts. Over the past decade researchers have focused on the role hydrovolcanism/phreatomagmatism plays in the formation of maar craters, the evolution of diatremes and the signatures of magma—water interaction in the geological record. In the past five years, lithofacies-characterization is the most common approach to studying hydrovolcanism. By far mafic monogenetic volcanic fields generated the greatest number of research results. Significant knowledge gaps are identified, especially in developing tools to identify the textural signatures hydrovolcanism leave behind on eruptive products and exploring the role of hydrovolcanism in the growth of intermediate and silicic small volume volcanoes.
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BUCKINGHAM, MICHAEL J., and MILTON A. GARCÉS. "AIRBORNE ACOUSTICS OF EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS." Journal of Computational Acoustics 09, no. 03 (September 2001): 1215–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218396x01000802.
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A recently developed theoretical model of the airborne acoustic field from an explosive volcanic eruption of the Strombolian type is described in this article. The magma column is assumed to be a circular cylinder, which is open to the atmosphere at the top, and which opens into a large magma chamber below. The magma itself is treated as a fluid, and the surrounding bedrock is taken to be rigid. An explosive source near the base of the magma column excites the natural resonances of the conduit. These resonances result in displacement of the magma surface, which acts as a piston radiating sound into the atmosphere. The source is modeled in much the same way as an underwater explosion from a high-explosive chemical such as TNT, although in the case of the volcano the detonation mechanism is the ex-solution of magmatic gases under extremely high hydrostatic pressure. The new theory shows compelling agreement with airborne acoustic signatures that were recorded in July 1994 at a distance of 150 m from the western vent of Stromboli volcano, Italy. The theoretical and observed power spectra both display the following features: (1) four energetic peaks below 20 Hz, identified as the first four longitudinal resonances of the magma column; (2) a broad minimum around 30 Hz, interpreted as a source-depth effect, occurring because the source lay close to nulls in the fifth and sixth longitudinal resonances and thus failed to excite these modes; and (3) radial resonance peaks between 35 and 65 Hz. On the basis of the theory, an inversion of the acoustic data from Stromboli yields estimates of the depth (≈100 m) and radius (≈16 m) of the magma column as well as the depth (≈83 m), spectral shape and peak shock wave pressure (≈1 GPa) of the explosive source. Most of the parameters estimated from the acoustic inversion compare favorably with the known geometry and source characteristics of Stromboli.
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Laakso, A., H. Kokkola, A. I. Partanen, U. Niemeier, C. Timmreck, K. E. J. Lehtinen, H. Hakkarainen, and H. Korhonen. "Radiative and climate impacts of a large volcanic eruption during stratospheric sulfur geoengineering." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 15, no. 15 (August 12, 2015): 21837–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-15-21837-2015.
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Abstract. Both explosive volcanic eruptions, which emit sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, and stratospheric geoengineering via sulfur injections can potentially cool the climate by increasing the amount of scattering particles in the atmosphere. Here we employ a global aerosol-climate model and an earth system model to study the radiative and climate impacts of an erupting volcano during solar radiation management (SRM). According to our simulations, the radiative impacts of an eruption and SRM are not additive: in the simulated case of concurrent eruption and SRM, the peak increase in global forcing is about 40 % lower compared to a corresponding eruption into a clean background atmosphere. In addition, the recovery of the stratospheric sulfate burden and forcing was significantly faster in the concurrent case since the sulfate particles grew larger and thus sedimented faster from the stratosphere. In our simulation where we assumed that SRM would be stopped immediately after a volcano eruption, stopping SRM decreased the overall stratospheric aerosol load. For the same reasons, a volcanic eruption during SRM lead to only about 1/3 of the peak global ensemble-mean cooling compared to an eruption under unperturbed atmospheric conditions. Furthermore, the global cooling signal was seen only for 12 months after the eruption in the former scenario compared to over 40 months in the latter. In terms of the global precipitation rate, we obtain a 36 % smaller decrease in the first year after the eruption and again a clearly faster recovery in the concurrent eruption and SRM scenario. We also found that an explosive eruption could lead to significantly different regional climate responses depending on whether it takes place during geoengineering or into an unperturbed background atmosphere. Our results imply that observations from previous large eruptions, such as Mt Pinatubo in 1991, are not directly applicable when estimating the potential consequences of a volcanic eruption during stratospheric geoengineering.
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Edmonds, Marie. "New geochemical insights into volcanic degassing." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366, no. 1885 (September 30, 2008): 4559–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0185.
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Magma degassing plays a fundamental role in controlling the style of volcanic eruptions. Whether a volcanic eruption is explosive, or effusive, is of crucial importance to approximately 500 million people living in the shadow of hazardous volcanoes worldwide. Studies of how gases exsolve and separate from magma prior to and during eruptions have been given new impetus by the emergence of more accurate and automated methods to measure volatile species both as volcanic gases and dissolved in the glasses of erupted products. The composition of volcanic gases is dependent on a number of factors, the most important being magma composition and the depth of gas–melt segregation prior to eruption; this latter parameter has proved difficult to constrain in the past, yet is arguably the most critical for controlling eruptive style. Spectroscopic techniques operating in the infrared have proved to be of great value in measuring the composition of gases at high temporal resolution. Such methods, when used in tandem with microanalytical geochemical investigations of erupted products, are leading to better constraints on the depth at which gases are generated and separated from magma. A number of recent studies have focused on transitions between explosive and effusive activity and have led to a better understanding of gas–melt segregation at basaltic volcanoes. Other studies have focused on degassing during intermediate and silicic eruptions. Important new results include the recognition of fluxing by deep-derived gases, which buffer the amount of dissolved volatiles in the melt at shallow depths, and the observation of gas flow up permeable conduit wall shear zones, which may be the primary mechanism for gas loss at the cusp of the most explosive and unpredictable volcanic eruptions. In this paper, I review current and future directions in the field of geochemical studies of volcanic degassing processes and illustrate how the new insights are beginning to change the way in which we understand and classify volcanic eruptions.
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Marzano, F. S., M. Lamantea, M. Montopoli, S. Di Fabio, and E. Picciotti. "The Eyjafjöll explosive volcanic eruption from a microwave weather radar perspective." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 11, no. 4 (April 20, 2011): 12367–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-11-12367-2011.
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Abstract. The sub-glacial Eyjafjöll explosive volcanic eruptions of April and May 2010 are analyzed and quantitatively interpreted by using ground-based weather radar data and volcanic ash radar retrieval (VARR) technique. The Eyjafjöll eruptions have been continuously monitored by the Keflavík C-band weather radar, located at a distance of about 155 km from the volcano vent. Considering that the Eyjafjöll volcano is approximately 20 km far from the Atlantic Ocean and that the northerly winds stretched the plume toward the mainland Europe, weather radars are the only means to provide an estimate of the total ejected tephra. The VARR methodology is summarized and applied to available radar time series to estimate the plume maximum height, ash particle category, ash volume, ash fallout and ash concentration every 5 min near the vent. Estimates of the discharge rate of eruption, based on the retrieved ash plume top height, are provided together with an evaluation of the total erupted mass and volume. Deposited ash at ground is also retrieved from radar data by empirically reconstructing the vertical profile of radar reflectivity and estimating the near-surface ash fallout. Radar-based retrieval results cannot be compared with ground measurements, due to the lack of the latter, but further demonstrate the unique contribution of these remote sensing products to the understating and modelling of explosive volcanic ash eruptions.
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Marzano, F. S., M. Lamantea, M. Montopoli, S. Di Fabio, and E. Picciotti. "The Eyjafjöll explosive volcanic eruption from a microwave weather radar perspective." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, no. 18 (September 16, 2011): 9503–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-9503-2011.
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Abstract. The sub-glacial Eyjafjöll explosive volcanic eruptions of April and May 2010 are analyzed and quantitatively interpreted by using ground-based weather radar data and the Volcanic Ash Radar Retrieval (VARR) technique. The Eyjafjöll eruptions have been continuously monitored by the Keflavík C-band weather radar, located at a distance of about 155 km from the volcano vent. Considering that the Eyjafjöll volcano is approximately 20 km from the Atlantic Ocean and that the northerly winds stretched the plume toward the mainland Europe, weather radars are the only means to provide an estimate of the total ejected tephra. The VARR methodology is summarized and applied to available radar time series to estimate the plume maximum height, ash particle category, ash volume, ash fallout and ash concentration every 5 min near the vent. Estimates of the discharge rate of eruption, based on the retrieved ash plume top height, are provided together with an evaluation of the total erupted mass and volume. Deposited ash at ground is also retrieved from radar data by empirically reconstructing the vertical profile of radar reflectivity and estimating the near-surface ash fallout. Radar-based retrieval results cannot be compared with ground measurements, due to the lack of the latter, but further demonstrate the unique contribution of these remote sensing products to the understating and modelling of explosive volcanic ash eruptions.
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Self, S. "The effects and consequences of very large explosive volcanic eruptions." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, no. 1845 (June 28, 2006): 2073–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2006.1814.
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Every now and again Earth experiences tremendous explosive volcanic eruptions, considerably bigger than the largest witnessed in historic times. Those yielding more than 450 km 3 of magma have been called super-eruptions. The record of such eruptions is incomplete; the most recent known example occurred 26 000 years ago. It is more likely that the Earth will next experience a super-eruption than an impact from a large meteorite greater than 1 km in diameter. Depending on where the volcano is located, the effects will be felt globally or at least by a whole hemisphere. Large areas will be devastated by pyroclastic flow deposits, and the more widely dispersed ash falls will be laid down over continent-sized areas. The most widespread effects will be derived from volcanic gases, sulphur gases being particularly important. This gas is converted into sulphuric acid aerosols in the stratosphere and layers of aerosol can cover the global atmosphere within a few weeks to months. These remain for several years and affect atmospheric circulation causing surface temperature to fall in many regions. Effects include temporary reductions in light levels and severe and unseasonable weather (including cool summers and colder-than-normal winters). Some aspects of the understanding and prediction of super-eruptions are problematic because they are well outside modern experience. Our global society is now very different to that affected by past, modest-sized volcanic activity and is highly vulnerable to catastrophic damage of infrastructure by natural disasters. Major disruption of services that society depends upon can be expected for periods of months to, perhaps, years after the next very large explosive eruption and the cost to global financial markets will be high and sustained.
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Wilch, T. I., W. C. McIntosh, and K. S. Panter. "Chapter 5.4a Marie Byrd Land and Ellsworth Land: volcanology." Geological Society, London, Memoirs 55, no. 1 (2021): 515–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/m55-2019-39.
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AbstractNineteen large (2348–4285 m above sea level) central polygenetic alkaline shield-like composite volcanoes and numerous smaller volcanoes in Marie Byrd Land (MBL) and western Ellsworth Land rise above the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and comprise the MBL Volcanic Group (MBLVG). Earliest MBLVG volcanism dates to the latest Eocene (36.6 Ma). Polygenetic volcanism began by the middle Miocene (13.4 Ma) and has continued into the Holocene without major interruptions, producing the central volcanoes with 24 large (2–10 km-diameter) summit calderas and abundant evidence for explosive eruptions in caldera-rim deposits. Rock lithofacies are dominated by basanite and trachyte/phonolite lava and breccia, deposited in both subaerial and ice-contact environments. The chronology of MBLVG volcanism is well constrained by 330 age analyses, including 52 new40Ar/39Ar ages. A volcanic lithofacies record of glaciation provides evidence of local ice-cap glaciation at 29–27 Ma and of widespread WAIS glaciation by 9 Ma. Late Quaternary glaciovolcanic records document WAIS expansions that correlate to eustatic sea-level lowstands (MIS 16, 4 and 2): the WAIS was +500 m at 609 ka at coastal Mount Murphy, and +400 m at 64.7 ka, +400 m at 21.2 ka and +575 m at 17.5 ka at inland Mount Takahe.
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Staunton-Sykes, John, Thomas J. Aubry, Youngsub M. Shin, James Weber, Lauren R. Marshall, Nathan Luke Abraham, Alex Archibald, and Anja Schmidt. "Co-emission of volcanic sulfur and halogens amplifies volcanic effective radiative forcing." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 21, no. 11 (June 14, 2021): 9009–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9009-2021.
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Abstract. The evolution of volcanic sulfur and the resulting radiative forcing following explosive volcanic eruptions is well understood. Petrological evidence suggests that significant amounts of halogens may be co-emitted alongside sulfur in some explosive volcanic eruptions, and satellite evidence indicates that detectable amounts of these halogens may reach the stratosphere. In this study, we utilise an aerosol–chemistry–climate model to simulate stratospheric volcanic eruption emission scenarios of two sizes, both with and without co-emission of volcanic halogens, in order to understand how co-emitted halogens may alter the life cycle of volcanic sulfur, stratospheric chemistry, and the resulting radiative forcing. We simulate a large (10 Tg of SO2) and very large (56 Tg of SO2) sulfur-only eruption scenario and a corresponding large (10 Tg SO2, 1.5 Tg HCl, 0.0086 Tg HBr) and very large (56 Tg SO2, 15 Tg HCl, 0.086 Tg HBr) co-emission eruption scenario. The eruption scenarios simulated in this work are hypothetical, but they are comparable to Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 6 (e.g. 1991 Mt Pinatubo) and VEI 7 (e.g. 1257 Mt Samalas) eruptions, representing 1-in-50–100-year and 1-in-500–1000-year events, respectively, with plausible amounts of co-emitted halogens based on satellite observations and volcanic plume modelling. We show that co-emission of volcanic halogens and sulfur into the stratosphere increases the volcanic effective radiative forcing (ERF) by 24 % and 30 % in large and very large co-emission scenarios compared to sulfur-only emission. This is caused by an increase in both the forcing from volcanic aerosol–radiation interactions (ERFari) and composition of the stratosphere (ERFclear,clean). Volcanic halogens catalyse the destruction of stratospheric ozone, which results in significant stratospheric cooling, offsetting the aerosol heating simulated in sulfur-only scenarios and resulting in net stratospheric cooling. The ozone-induced stratospheric cooling prevents aerosol self-lofting and keeps the volcanic aerosol lower in the stratosphere with a shorter lifetime. This results in reduced growth by condensation and coagulation and a smaller peak global-mean effective radius compared to sulfur-only simulations. The smaller effective radius found in both co-emission scenarios is closer to the peak scattering efficiency radius of sulfate aerosol, and thus co-emission of halogens results in larger peak global-mean ERFari (6 % and 8 %). Co-emission of volcanic halogens results in significant stratospheric ozone, methane, and water vapour reductions, resulting in significant increases in peak global-mean ERFclear,clean (> 100 %), predominantly due to ozone loss. The dramatic global-mean ozone depletion simulated in large (22 %) and very large (57 %) co-emission scenarios would result in very high levels of UV exposure on the Earth's surface, with important implications for society and the biosphere. This work shows for the first time that co-emission of plausible amounts of volcanic halogens can amplify the volcanic ERF in simulations of explosive eruptions. It highlights the need to include volcanic halogen emissions when simulating the climate impacts of past or future eruptions, as well as the necessity to maintain space-borne observations of stratospheric compounds to better constrain the stratospheric injection estimates of volcanic eruptions.
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Zhuo, Zhihong, Ingo Kirchner, Stephan Pfahl, and Ulrich Cubasch. "Climate impact of volcanic eruptions: the sensitivity to eruption season and latitude in MPI-ESM ensemble experiments." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 21, no. 17 (September 9, 2021): 13425–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13425-2021.
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Abstract. Explosive volcanic eruptions influence near-surface temperature and precipitation especially in the monsoon regions, but the impact varies with different eruption seasons and latitudes. To study this variability, two groups of ensemble simulations are performed with volcanic eruptions in June and December at 0∘ representing an equatorial eruption (EQ) and at 30∘ N and 30∘ S representing Northern and Southern Hemisphere eruptions (NH and SH). Results show significant cooling especially in areas with enhanced volcanic aerosol content. Compared to the EQ eruption, stronger cooling emerges in the Northern Hemisphere after the NH eruption and in the Southern Hemisphere after the SH eruption. Stronger precipitation variations occur in the tropics than in the high latitudes. Summer and winter eruptions lead to similar hydrological impacts. The NH and the SH eruptions have reversed climate impacts, especially in the regions of the South Asian summer monsoon (SASM). After the NH eruption, direct radiative effects of volcanic aerosols induce changes in the interhemispheric and land–sea thermal contrasts, which move the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) southward and weaken the SASM. This reduces the moisture transport from the ocean and reduces cloud formation and precipitation in India. The subsequent radiative feedbacks due to regional cloud cover lead to warming in India. After the SH eruption, vice versa, a northward movement of the ITCZ and strengthening of the SASM, along with enhanced cloud formation, lead to enhanced precipitation and cooling in India. This emphasizes the sensitivity of regional climate impacts of volcanic eruptions to eruption latitude, which relates to the dynamical response of the climate system to radiative effects of volcanic aerosols and the subsequent regional physical feedbacks. Our results indicate the importance of considering dynamical and physical feedbacks to understand the mechanism behind regional climate responses to volcanic eruptions and may also shed light on the climate impact and potential mechanisms of stratospheric aerosol engineering.
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Zielinski, Gregory A. "Climatic Impact of Volcanic Eruptions." Scientific World JOURNAL 2 (2002): 869–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2002.83.
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Volcanic eruptions have the potential to force global climate, provided they are explosive enough to emit at least 1–5 megaton of sulfur gases into the stratosphere. The sulfuric acid produced during oxidation of these gases will both absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation, thus warming the stratosphere and cooling the Earth’s surface. Maximum global cooling on the order of 0.2–0.3°C, using instrumental temperature records, occurs in the first 2 years after the eruption, with lesser cooling possibly up to the 4th year. Equatorial eruptions are able to affect global climate, whereas mid- to high-latitude events will impact the hemisphere of origin. However, regional responses may differ, including the possibility of winter warming following certain eruptions. Also, El Niño warming may override the cooling induced by volcanic activity. Evaluation of different style eruptions as well as of multiple eruptions closely spaced in time beyond the instrumental record is attained through the analysis of ice-core, tree-ring, and geologic records. Using these data in conjunction with climate proxy data indicates that multiple eruptions may force climate on decadal time scales, as appears to have occurred during the Little Ice Age (i.e., roughly AD 1400s–1800s). The Toba mega-eruption of ~75,000 years ago may have injected extremely large amounts of material into the stratosphere that remained aloft for up to about 7 years. This scenario could lead to the initiation of feedback mechanisms within the climate system, such as cooling of sea-surface temperatures. These interacting mechanisms following a mega-eruption may cool climate on centennial time scales.
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Zhang, M. J., Z. Q. Li, C. D. Xiao, D. H. Qin, H. A. Yang, J. C. Kang, and J. Li. "A continuous 250-year record of volcanic activity from Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica." Antarctic Science 14, no. 1 (March 2002): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102002000573.
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A 51.85 m ice core collected from site LGB65 (accumulation rate 127 kg m−2 a−1, mean annual temperature −33.1°C) in Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica, during the 1996–97 Chinese First Antarctic Inland Expedition has been analysed for chemical composition and oxygen isotope ratio. Based on the high definition of seasonal variations of major ions, the ice core was dated with errors within ± 3 years. The continuous sulphate analysis of the ice core provides an annually resolved proxy history of southern hemisphere volcanism in the past 250 years. High nssSO42−, concentrations seem to be well correlated to some explosive volcanic eruptions, such as Tambora (AD 1815), Coseguina (AD 1835), Krakatoa (AD 1883) and Tarawera (AD 1886). In comparison with other volcanic records, it seems that nssSO42− concentration data provide a better proxy for detecting volcanic activity than nssSO42− fluxes in low and intermediate accumulation regions, however, in high accumulation regions, small and moderate events may be more identifiable using of nssSO42− flux data.
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Druitt, Timothy H., David M. Pyle, and Tamsin A. Mather. "Santorini Volcano and its Plumbing System." Elements 15, no. 3 (June 1, 2019): 177–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.15.3.177.
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Santorini Volcano is an outstanding natural laboratory for studying arc volcanism, having had twelve Plinian eruptions over the last 350,000 years, at least four of which caused caldera collapse. Periods between Plinian eruptions are characterized by intra-caldera edifice construction and lower intensity explosive activity. The Plinian eruptions are fed from magma reservoirs at 4–8 km depth that are assembled over several centuries prior to eruption by the arrival of high-flux magma pulses from deeper in the sub-caldera reservoir. Unrest in 2011–2012 involved intrusion of two magma pulses at about 4 km depth, suggesting that the behaviour of the modern-day volcano is similar to the behaviour of the volcano prior to Plinian eruptions. Emerging understanding of Santorini's plumbing system will enable better risk mitigation at this highly hazardous volcano.
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Mader, H. M. "PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS." Multiphase Science and Technology 11, no. 3 (1999): 147–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/multscientechn.v11.i3.10.
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Woods, Andrew W. "The dynamics of explosive volcanic eruptions." Reviews of Geophysics 33, no. 4 (1995): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95rg02096.
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Dufek, Josef, Michael Manga, and Ameeta Patel. "Granular disruption during explosive volcanic eruptions." Nature Geoscience 5, no. 8 (July 22, 2012): 561–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1524.
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Telling, J., J. Dufek, and A. Shaikh. "Ash aggregation in explosive volcanic eruptions." Geophysical Research Letters 40, no. 10 (May 28, 2013): 2355–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50376.
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Weller, Derek J., María Eugenia De Porras, Antonio Maldonado, César Méndez, and Charles R. Stern. "Holocene tephrochronology of the lower Río Cisnes valley, southern Chile." Andean Geology 44, no. 3 (September 29, 2017): 229. http://dx.doi.org/10.5027/andgeov44n3-a01.
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Sediment cores from lakes and bogs in the Río Cisnes valley contain tephra from explosive eruptions of volcanoes in the southern part of the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone (SSVZ). These tephra, which thicken and coarsen to the west, are attributed to eruptions from Melimoyu, Mentolat, Hudson, and potentially either Macá, Cay or one of the many minor eruptive centers (MEC) located both along the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone (LOFZ) and surrounding the major volcanoes. Correlation of the tephra between two new cores in the lower Río Cisnes valley, and amongst other cores previously described from the region, and source volcano identification for the tephra, has been done using lithostratigraphic data (tephra layer thickness and grain size), petrography (tephra glass color, vesicle morphology, and type and abundance of phenocryst phases), and by comparison of bulk tephra trace-element characteristics with previously published whole-rock and bulk tephra chemical analysis. Four tephras in these cores are attributed to eruptions of Mentolat, four to eruptions from Melimoyu, one possibly to Hudson, and six cannot be assigned to a specific source volcano. Some of these tephra correspond to pyroclastic tephra fall deposits previously observed in outcrop, including the MEL2 eruption of Melimoyu and the MEN1 eruption of Mentolat. However, others have not been previously observed and represent the products of newly identified small to medium sized eruptions from volcanoes of the SSVZ. These results provide new information concerning the frequency and magnitude of explosive eruption of SSVZ volcanoes and contribute to the evaluation of volcanic hazards in the region.
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Nandaka, I. Gusti Made Agung, Sulistiyani, Yosef Suharna, and Raditya Putra. "Overview of Merapi Volcanic Activities from Monitoring Data 1992–2011 Periods." Journal of Disaster Research 14, no. 1 (February 1, 2019): 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2019.p0018.
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Merapi, the dangerous active volcano in Indonesia, has been monitored since the 1920s by applying several methods and tools. The monitoring data from earlier times are stored well and can be used as reference for any precursors and signs before each eruption. This article evaluates the long-term activity of Merapi from the monitoring data for 1992–2011 to obtain the trends and patterns before the eruption period by combining the seismicity, deformation, volcanic gas, and temperature data in the same time span. Several characteristics are exhibited before effusive and explosive eruptions, i.e., a significant level up in volcano-tectonic energy and increased CO2gas concentration indicating an explosive eruption. Effusive eruption is characterized by a significant multiphase earthquake with less occurrence of deep and shallow volcano-tectonic events. Deformation data from a tiltmeter and electronic distance measurement are important in understanding the dynamics of the lava dome and the eruption direction.
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Narcisi, Biancamaria, Marco Proposito, and Massimo Frezzotti. "Ice record of a 13th century explosive volcanic eruption in northern Victoria Land, East Antarctica." Antarctic Science 13, no. 2 (June 2001): 174–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102001000268.
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A volcanic event, represented by both coarse ash and a prominent sulphate peak, has been detected at a depth of 85.82 m in a 90 m ice core drilled at Talos Dome, northern Victoria Land. Accurate dating of the core, based on counting annual sulphate and nitrate fluctuations and on comparison with records of major known volcanic eruptions, indicates that the event occurred in 1254 ± 2 AD. The source volcano is most likely to be located within the Ross Sea region. In particular, the glass shards have a trachytic composition similar to rocks from The Pleiades and Mount Rittmann (Melbourne volcanic province), about 200 km from Talos Dome. Sulphate concentration is comparable with that of violent extra-Antarctic explosive events recorded in the same core, but atmospheric perturbation was short-lived and localized, suggesting a negligible impact on regional climate. It is suggested that this eruption may represent the most important volcanic explosion in the Melbourne province during the last eight centuries; thus this event may also represent a valuable chrono-stratigraphical marker on the East Antarctic plateau and in adjoining areas.
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Nomikou, Paraskevi, Christian Hübscher, and Steven Carey. "The Christiana–Santorini–Kolumbo Volcanic Field." Elements 15, no. 3 (June 1, 2019): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.15.3.171.
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The Christiana–Santorini–Kolumbo volcanic field in the South Aegean Sea (Greece) is one of the most important in Europe, having produced more than 100 explosive eruptions in the last 400,000 years. Its volcanic centers include the extinct Christiana Volcano and associated seamounts, Santorini caldera with its intracaldera Kameni Volcano, Kolumbo Volcano, and 24 other submarine cones of the Kolumbo chain. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, submarine mass wasting, neotectonics and gas releases from these centers pose significant geohazards to human populations and infrastructures of the Eastern Mediterranean region. Defining the geological processes and structures that contribute to these geohazards will provide an important framework to guide future monitoring and research activities aimed at hazard mitigation.
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Medeiros, Joana, Rita Carmo, Adriano Pimentel, José Cabral Vieira, and Gabriela Queiroz. "Assessing the impact of explosive eruptions of Fogo volcano (São Miguel, Azores) on the tourism economy." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 21, no. 1 (January 29, 2021): 417–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-417-2021.
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Abstract. The Azores are an active volcanic region that offers exceptional conditions for nature-based tourism, one of the main axes of economic growth in the archipelago. A future volcanic eruption may have long-term consequences to this economic sector. Therefore, it is fundamental to assess its vulnerability to volcanic hazards in order to try to mitigate the associated risk. This study proposes a new approach to assessing the economic impact of explosive eruptions on the tourism sector. We considered two eruptive scenarios for Fogo volcano (São Miguel Island), the most probable (Volcanic Explosivity Index, VEI, 4 sub-Plinian eruption) and the worst-case (VEI 5 Plinian eruption), both producing tephra fallout and pyroclastic density currents. The results of numerical simulations were overlaid with tourism-related buildings and infrastructure of Vila Franca do Campo municipality to identify the elements at risk. The loss present value method was used to estimate the benefits generated by the accommodation units over 30 years for different economic scenarios. The assessment of the economic impact using 2018 indicators reveals that in a near-total-destruction scenario, the economic loss is approximately EUR 145 million (considering a 2 % discount rate). This approach can also be applied to other volcanic regions, geologic hazards and economic sectors.
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Girina, O. A., A. G. Manevich, D. V. Melnikov, A. A. Nuzhdaev, and E. G. Petrova. "2016 volcano eruptions in Kamchatka and the Northern Kuriles and their danger to aviation." Вулканология и сейсмология, no. 3 (May 14, 2019): 34–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0203-03062019334-48.
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Strong explosive volcanic eruptions are extremely dangerous to the modern jet aircraft as they can produce several cubic kilometers of volcanic ash and aerosols that can be sent to the atmosphere and the stratosphere in several hours to several days during the eruption. In 2016, five from thirty active volcanoes erupted in Kamchatka (Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny, Karymsky, and Zhupanovsky) and three from six active volcanoes in the Northern Kuriles (Alaid, Ebeko, and Chikurachki). Effusive volcanic activity was noted at Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny and Alaid. All the volcanoes produced explosive activity. Strong explosive events occurred at Sheveluch mainly from September till December. Moderate ash emission had accompanied of Klyuchevskoy’s eruption through March till November. Explosive activity at Karymsky, Zhupanovsky, Alaid, and Chikurachki volcanoes was observed mainly in the first half of the year. The total area covered by ash in 2016 was estimated 600,000 km2, from which 460,000 km2 were related to the eruptions of Kamchatka volcanoes and 140,000 km2 were attributed to the eruption of the North Kuriles volcanoes. The activity at Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, and Zhupanovsky was dangerous to international and local airlines as explosions produced ash up to 10-12 km above sea level. The activity at Bezymianny, Karymsky, Alaid, Ebeko, and Chikurachki posed a threat to local aircrafts when explosions sent ash up to 5 km above sea level.
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Girina, O. A., A. G. Manevich, D. V. Melnikov, A. A. Nuzhdaev, and E. G. Petrova. "2016 volcano eruptions in Kamchatka and the Northern Kuriles and their danger to aviation." Вулканология и сейсмология, no. 3 (May 14, 2019): 34–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0205-96142019334-48.
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Strong explosive volcanic eruptions are extremely dangerous to the modern jet aircraft as they can produce several cubic kilometers of volcanic ash and aerosols that can be sent to the atmosphere and the stratosphere in several hours to several days during the eruption. In 2016, five from thirty active volcanoes erupted in Kamchatka (Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny, Karymsky, and Zhupanovsky) and three from six active volcanoes in the Northern Kuriles (Alaid, Ebeko, and Chikurachki). Effusive volcanic activity was noted at Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, Bezymianny and Alaid. All the volcanoes produced explosive activity. Strong explosive events occurred at Sheveluch mainly from September till December. Moderate ash emission had accompanied of Klyuchevskoy’s eruption through March till November. Explosive activity at Karymsky, Zhupanovsky, Alaid, and Chikurachki volcanoes was observed mainly in the first half of the year. The total area covered by ash in 2016 was estimated 600,000 km2, from which 460,000 km2 were related to the eruptions of Kamchatka volcanoes and 140,000 km2 were attributed to the eruption of the North Kuriles volcanoes. The activity at Sheveluch, Klyuchevskoy, and Zhupanovsky was dangerous to international and local airlines as explosions produced ash up to 10-12 km above sea level. The activity at Bezymianny, Karymsky, Alaid, Ebeko, and Chikurachki posed a threat to local aircrafts when explosions sent ash up to 5 km above sea level.