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Journal articles on the topic 'Warble flies'
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1
Klein, S. A., M. Bowe, and K. K. Klein. "Adverse Selection and Warble Flies in Alberta." Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue canadienne d'agroeconomie 37, no. 1 (March 1989): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.1989.tb03339.x.
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HUGHES, J., S. D. ALBON, R. J. IRVINE, and S. WOODIN. "Is there a cost of parasites to caribou?" Parasitology 136, no. 2 (December 22, 2008): 253–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182008005246.
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SUMMARYMacroparasites potentially play a significant but often ignored role in the ecology and dynamics of wild ruminant populations. In the Arctic, parasites may impact on host populations by exacerbating the effects of seasonal and limited forage availability on the condition, fecundity and survival of individuals. We studied the effects of abomasal nematode parasites and warble flies, Hypoderma tarandi, on condition and pregnancy of caribou Rangifer tarandus in the Dolphin-Union herd, Nunavut, Canada. By the end of winter, female caribou over 2 years old showed a significant decrease in body weight with increasing nematode burden, and a decrease in back fat depth with increasing warble abundance. These effects were exaggerated in the non-pregnant fraction of the population. High warble larvae burdens were also associated with significantly reduced probability of being pregnant. Our research demonstrates a negative relationship between parasites and caribou condition that may have consequences for their fitness. Additionally, we discuss the possibility that muskox Ovibos moschatus share some parasite species with the caribou and could lead to elevated burdens in the sympatric host. Parasites may have been a contributory factor in a previous winter range-shift of the caribou herd and this may reflect a form of apparent competition between the two ungulate species.
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Liaqat, Sadia, Mazhar Qayyum, Figen Celik, Sami Simsek, Faheem Ahmad, Xiaocheng Zhang, Haroon Ahmed, and Jianping Cao. "Comparative Analysis of Different ELISA Methods for the Serodiagnosis of Przhevalskiana silenus Infestation in Goats." Veterinary Sciences 10, no. 6 (June 16, 2023): 396. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10060396.
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Przhevalskiana silenus (warble fly) grubs cause myiasis in goats, in mountainous and semi-mountainous areas and different regions in Pakistan, and cause substantial losses to livestock. The palpation method for detecting warble flies generally neglects the infestation intensity; therefore, the development of a reliable and efficient diagnostic technique is extremely necessary. This study compared three indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods for detecting anti-P. silenus antibodies using the hypodermin C (HyC) purified from Hypoderma spp. Larvae collected in cattle (local isolate, Microbiology Laboratory, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi), the crude antigen from the first instar stage of P. silenus, and a commercial Bovine Hypodermosis Antibody ELISA kit (IDEXX Laboratory), for accurately estimating the seroprevalence of goat warble fly infestation (GWFI) in the Pothwar plateau, Punjab, Pakistan. The ELISA with the crude antigen of P. silenus proved very sensitive and specific, 91% and 93%, respectively. The optical density exhibited a monthly variation, and the antibody titer began increasing from June, continually increased from July to December, and gradually decreased thereafter until March. The study confirmed the endemic status of GWFI in the Pothwar region and identified that ELISA based on the crude antigen of P. silenus was a more sensitive and specific immunodiagnostic method for determining seroprevalence, and could be employed for initiating nationwide eradication campaigns.
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Ballesteros, M., B. J. Bårdsen, K. Langeland, P. Fauchald, A. Stien, and T. Tveraa. "The effect of warble flies on reindeer fitness: a parasite removal experiment." Journal of Zoology 287, no. 1 (December 2, 2011): 34–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2011.00883.x.
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Okunev, A. M. "THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOME PYRETHROID PREPARATIONSIN CLINICAL CASES OF BOVINE HYPODERMATOSISIN THE TYUMEN REGION." Vestnik Altajskogo gosudarstvennogo agrarnogo universiteta, no. 9 (2021): 50–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.53083/1996-4277-2021-203-09-50-54.
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There are two types of bovine warble flies in the Tyu-men Region: Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum. The larvae of these insects cause significant harm to ani-mals, and farms bear significant economic damage due to decreased meat and dairy productivity of cattle and dam-age to leather raw materials. Ivermectin-based drugs are the most efficient means of controlling these pests. How-ever, recently, within the former Soviet Union and beyond, there were reports on the development of resistance in some insect species, including gadflies, to avermectin-typepreparations. In this regard, it is relevant to search for larvi-cides from other chemical groups that are efficient against the diseases caused by bovine warble flies. The research goal was to test the larvicidal activity of some preparations from the group of synthetic pyrethroids in comparison with the recommended means of controlling mature warble fly larvae by pour-on method. To exterminate mature larvae in fattening steers spontaneously infected with the parasites,Hypodectin-Nwas used; to compare the effectiveness, pyrethroid-based preparations were used: Ectomin -0.5% aqueous emulsion of Cypermethrin, Ectopor -2% solution of Cypermethrin, and Purofen -3% solution of Esfen-valerate, all ready to use. The solutions were applied to the skin of animal backs on both sides of the vertebral column using a syringe dispenser in a dose of 15 mL. The experi-ments have shown that the preparations of Cypermethrin and Fenvalerate prepared on the basis of organic solvents have high lipophilicity which ensures long-term preserva-tion of pyrethroids on the skin and their penetration into the capsules of the larvae of the hypodermal layer. Larvicidal efficiency of Ectopor and Purofen made 89.9 and 95.6%, respectively, while the activity of Hypodectin-Nmade 95.4%. Toxicological studies have shown that pyrethroid preparations do not cause irritation and destruction of the epidermis and hair of the skin, do not change the clinical status of steers and hematological indices of the treated animals. The obtained data allow advising Ectopor and Purofen for late chemotherapy of bovine hypodermatosis by pour-on methodin a dose of 15 mL per animal.
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Colwell, Douglas D., and Nancy M. Berry. "Tarsal Sensilla of the Warble Flies Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum (Diptera: Oestridae)." Annals of the Entomological Society of America 86, no. 6 (November 1, 1993): 756–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aesa/86.6.756.
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Mooring, Michael S., and Benjamin L. Hart. "Animal Grouping for Protection From Parasites: Selfish Herd and Encounter-Dilution Effects." Behaviour 123, no. 3-4 (1992): 173–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853992x00011.
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AbstractGrouping has been widely accepted as a mechanism for protection from predation. Just as has been apparent with predation, there is now ample evidence that parasites (biting flies, warble flies and parasitoids) can impact an animal's individual fitness. Some aspects of grouping, namely an encounter-dilution effect and the selfish herd effect, appear to apply as much to protection of animals from flying parasites as protection from predators. The encounter-dilution effect provides protection when the probability of detection of a group does not increase in proportion to an increase in group size (the encounter effect), provided that the parasites do not offset the encounter effect by attacking more members of the group (the dilution effect). The selfish herd effect provides protection from flying parasites to animals that are in the center of a group or more closely placed to other animals. Most of the quantitative evidence for the protection from flying parasites from grouping comes from studies on ungulates. Further investigation of these effects among a variety of taxa is needed for a full appreciation of the role of parasites in animal grouping and sociality.
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Nilssen, Arne C., and John R. Anderson. "Flight capacity of the reindeer warble fly, Hypoderma tarandi (L.), and the reindeer nose bot fly, Cephenemyia trompe (Modeer) (Diptera: Oestridae)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 73, no. 7 (July 1, 1995): 1228–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z95-147.
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The performance of tethered flies on a laboratory flight mill was used to assess the flight capacity of Hypoderma tarandi (L.) and Cephenemyia trompe (Modeer). Maximum total flying times for H. tarandi females were 31.5 h, but most flies flew < 20 h (mean 8.5 h (SD 7.2 h)). The longest continuous flight was 12 h. For both species, mating greatly altered the flight behaviour of females. Unmated laboratory-reared females were reluctant to fly, and flew less continuously than mated wild-caught flies. Hypoderma tarandi males typically flew for short periods of a few minutes with long rests between flights. Cephenemyia trompe females seldom exceeded 10 h of total flying time (mean 4.9 h (SD 3.2 h), maximum 10.8 h), but were capable of many hours of sustained flight. Field-trapped C. trompe males normally flew < 8 h (mean 2.8 h (SD 2.1 h), maximum 7.1 h). In free flight the speed of C. trompe males was ≈8 m/s. Maximum flight distances during the lifetime of a fly were estimated to be 600–900 km for female H. tarandi, 220–330 km for female C. trompe, and 200–400 km for males of both species. Hypoderma tarandi could maximally reduce its mass to about 40% of initial mass, and the mass loss rate during flight was 3.5-fold that of basal metabolism (i.e., without flying) at 22 °C. The adaptive significance of the extraordinary capacity for sustained flight of female oestrids is related to the migratory behaviour of their vertebrate host, Rangifer tarandus (L.).
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Folstad, Ivar, Arne C. Nilssen, Odd Halvorsen, and Johan Andersen. "Parasite avoidance: the cause of post-calving migrations in Rangifer?" Canadian Journal of Zoology 69, no. 9 (September 1, 1991): 2423–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z91-340.
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Intensities of warble fly larvae, Hypoderma tarandi (L.), were examined in slaughtered reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) from different summer grazing areas of Finnmark County, northern Norway. To test the hypothesis that larval abundance decreases with increase in post-calving migration distance (i.e., distance from calving grounds), herds with differing migration distances were sampled. The prevalence of infection in the total sample of 1168 animals was 99.9%. The study revealed significant differences in larval abundance among herds from different summer grazing areas. Herds with post-calving migrations have significantly lower larval abundances than herds remaining on or near the calving grounds for the whole summer. Between-herds variation in abundance of H. tarandi larvae is assumed to reflect differing densities of the infective stage (adult flies) on the herds' summer ranges. Larval abundance in a herd is in turn negatively correlated with the distance between the main larval shedding areas (i.e., calving grounds) and the areas of greatest transmission (i.e., summer pastures). These results are discussed in relation to transmission of other parasites common to Rangifer and suggest that this host's post-calving migration may be a behavioural adaptation that reduces levels of parasitic infections.
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McMartin, B., I. Bellocq, and S. M. Smith. "Patterns of Consumption and Diet Differentiation for Three Breeding Warbler Species During a Spruce Budworm Outbreak." Auk 119, no. 1 (January 1, 2002): 216–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/119.1.216.
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Abstract Diets of three warbler species were analyzed during a spruce budworm outbreak in the boreal forest of northern Ontario. Beetles constituted a large portion of the food items consumed by Cape May (Dendroica tigrina), Bay-breasted (Dendroica castanea), and Tennessee (Vermivora peregrina) warblers early in the breeding season (7–11 June), and caterpillars were the most frequently used food category shortly later (18–24 June). Differences in diet served to differentiate the warbler species in the earlier period when Bay-breasted Warblers consumed more beetles, Tennessee Warblers consumed more caterpillars, and Cape May Warblers consumed more flies than the other species. Only Bay-breasted Warblers' continuing preference for beetles differentiated the warblers' diets in the later period. Food-niche overlaps increased for two of the three warbler species pairs between the two periods in June, but there was no change in the overlap between Bay-breasted and Cape May warbler diets.
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Nilssen, Arne C., and Rolf E. Haugerud. "The timing and departure rate of larvae of the warble fly Hypoderma (= Oedemagena) tarandi (L.) and the nose bot fly Cephenemyia trompe (Modeer) (Diptera: Oestridae) from reindeer." Rangifer 14, no. 3 (December 1, 1994): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.7557/2.14.3.1143.
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The emergence of larvae of the reindeer warble fly Hypoderma (= Oedemagena) tarandi (L.) (n = 2205) from 4, 9, 3, 6 and 5 Norwegian semi-domestic reindeer yearlings (Rangifer tarandus tarandus (L.)) was registered in 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992, respectively. Larvae of the reindeer nose bot fly Cephenemyia trompe (Moder) (n = 261) were recorded during the years 1990, 1991 and 1992 from the same reindeer. A collection cape technique (only H. tarandi) and a grating technique (both species) were used. In both species, dropping started around 20 Apr and ended 20 June. Peak emergence occurred from 10 May - 10 June, and was usually bimodal. The temperature during the larvae departure period had a slight effect (significant only in 1991) on the dropping rate of H. tarandi larvae, and temperature during infection in the preceding summer is therefore supposed to explain the uneven dropping rate. This appeared to be due to the occurrence of successive periods of infection caused by separate periods of weather that were favourable for mass attacks by the flies. As a result, the temporal pattern of maturation of larvae was divided into distinct pulses. Departure time of the larvae in relation to spring migration of the reindeer influences infection levels. Applied possibilities for biological control by separating the reindeer from the dropping sites are discussed.
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Joly, Kyle, Ophélie Couriot, Matthew D. Cameron, and Eliezer Gurarie. "Behavioral, Physiological, Demographic and Ecological Impacts of Hematophagous and Endoparasitic Insects on an Arctic Ungulate." Toxins 12, no. 5 (May 20, 2020): 334. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12050334.
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Animals that deliver a toxic secretion through a wound or to the body surface without a wound are considered venomous and toxungenous, respectively. Hematophagous insects, such as mosquitoes (Aedes spp.), meet the criteria for venomous, and some endoparasitic insects, such as warble flies (Hypoderma tarandi), satisfy the definition for toxungenous. The impacts of these insects on their hosts are wide ranging. In the Arctic, their primary host is the most abundant ungulate, the caribou (Rangifer tarandus). The most conspicuous impacts of these insects on caribou are behavioral. Caribou increase their movements during peak insect harassment, evading and running away from these parasites. These behavioral responses scale up to physiological effects as caribou move to less productive habitats to reduce harassment which increases energetic costs due to locomotion, reduces nutrient intake due to less time spent foraging, and can lead to poorer physiological condition. Reduced physiological condition can lead to lower reproductive output and even higher mortality rates, with the potential to ultimately affect caribou demographics. Caribou affect all trophic levels in the Arctic and the processes that connect them, thus altering caribou demographics could impact the ecology of the region. Broadening the definitions of venomous and toxungenous animals to include hematophagous and endoparasitic insects should not only generate productive collaborations among toxinologists and parasitologists, but will also lead to a deeper understanding of the ecology of toxic secretions and their widespread influence.
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Laishev, K. A., and A. A. Yuzhakov. "Science-based assurance of the disease freedom in reindeer herds of the Russian Arctic zone." Veterinary Science Today 13, no. 2 (June 12, 2024): 110–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.29326/2304-196x-2024-13-2-110-117.
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Reindeer husbandry takes a leading position in the agricultural sector of the Russian Federation Arctic zone. The purpose of the research is to analyze the science-based assurance of the freedom from highly dangerous infectious diseases in reindeer herds of the Arctic zone. It has been established that diseases such as anthrax, brucellosis, footrot, rabies are still relevant for the reindeer husbandry and can cause not only significant economic damage, but also diseases in humans. The analysis of the archival data and literary sources, as well as own research data lead to the following conclusions: the greatest risk of anthrax occurrence and spread is posed by old carcass sites; to eradicate brucellosis, vaccination of animals along with the general disease control measures is necessary; in case of footrot, special attention should be paid to the control of blood-sucking insects and warble flies; to prevent rabies in reindeer herds, it is important to avoid contacts between deer and wild carnivores and consider emergency vaccination. Undoubtedly, the eradication and prevention of the above-mentioned infectious diseases requires constant epidemiological surveillance, including its element – monitoring, with all necessary special management, animal health measures. There is an obvious need for constant surveillance of infectious diseases in the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation using GIS technologies. It is important to pay special attention to the generation of special information layers related to disease characteristics, including deer herd migration routes, sites where anthrax outbreaks were recorded, and the location of disease-infected facilities.
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Oboňa, Jozef, Eva Čisovská Bazsalovicsová, Alexandru-Mihai Pintilioaie, Viorel Dumitru Gavril, Oana Cristiana Vasiliu, Laura-Elena Topală, and Peter Manko. "Checklist of Hippoboscidae (Diptera) from Romania." Historia naturalis bulgarica 45, no. 9 (September 1, 2023): 229–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.48027/hnb.45.092.
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The checklist of louse flies or keds from the family Hippoboscidae in Romania with 14 species is given. Among them, six species have been newly recorded from Romania, from Natura 2000 site “Dunele Marine de la Agigea” Natural Reserve; namely: Icosta minor (Bigot in Thomson, 1858), Ornithoica turdi (Olivier in Latreille, 1812), Ornithomya chloropus Bergroth, 1901, Ornithomya fringillina Curtis, 1836, Ornithophila gestroi (Rondani, 1878), and Ornithophila metallica (Schiner, 1864). Out of the total, seven species are autochthonous, while the other seven are probably non-native species, either spreading invasively or only occasionally being imported to Romania or migrating to the country along with their hosts. Three new host-parasite associations have been reported for the first time. Specifically, the eastern olivaceous warbler Iduna pallida (Hemprich et Ehrenberg, 1833) represents new host species for I. minor and O. turdi, while the willow warbler Phylloscopus trochilus (Linnaeus, 1758) represents a new host species for O. gestroi.
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Žiegytė, Rita, Elena Platonova, Rasa Bernotienė, Gediminas Valkiūnas, and Vaidas Palinauskas. "Complete sporogony of the blood parasite Haemoproteus nucleocondensus in common biting midges: why is its transmission interrupted in Europe?" Parasitology 147, no. 5 (January 29, 2020): 593–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182020000116.
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AbstractHaemoproteus species (Haemoproteidae) are widespread blood parasites and are transmitted by Culicoides biting midges and Hippoboscidae louse flies. Although these pathogens may cause morbidity or mortality, the vectors and patterns of transmission remain unknown for the great majority of avian haemoproteids. Haemoproteus nucleocondensus has been frequently reported in Europe in great reed warblers Acrocephalus arundinaceus after their arrival from African wintering grounds, but this infection has not been found in juveniles at the breeding sites. The factors that prevent its transmission remain unclear. This study was designed to test whether the sporogony of H. nucleocondensus (lineage hGRW8) can be completed in Culicoides impunctatus, one of the most abundant European biting midge species. Wild-caught females were infected with H. nucleocondensus from great reed warblers. Microscopic examination and PCR-based methods were used to detect sporogonic stages and to confirm species identity. This study showed that H. nucleocondensus completes sporogony in C. impunctatus, suggesting that there are no obstacles to its transmission from the point of view of vector availability and average temperature in Northern Europe. We discuss other ecological factors which should be considered to explain why the transmission of H. nucleocondensus and some other Southern origin haemosporidians are interrupted in North Europe.
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Barton, W. E., R. Noblet, E. W. Gray, and H. S. Hill. "Vigilante®, Terminator®, and Warbex® for Horn Fly Control on Beef Cattle, 1987." Insecticide and Acaricide Tests 15, no. 1 (January 1, 1990): 357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iat/15.1.357.
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Abstract The Vigilante bolus (5% diflubenzuron), the Terminator ear tag (20% diazinon), and Warbex (pour-on, 13.2% famphur) were administered in horn fly efficacy trials at the Simpson Agricultural Experiment Station in upstate South Carolina. Vigilante boluses were administered to cattle based on the weight of the animal with a standard balling gun (136 to 250 kg received Yz bolus; otherwise Vt bolus per 102 kg body weight). No animal received more than 2 boluses. The Terminator ear tags were applied 2 per head. Mixed breed beef cows were divided randomly into five herds for application of treatments in this study. Forty-two cows with calves were orally administered Vigilante boluses on 18 Jun. All animals of this herd were also treated with Warbex at the label rate. A second herd of 30 cows with calves was treated with boluses only on 19 Jun. A third her-d of 39 cows with calves was bolused, and adult cows also were tagged with Terminator tags. A fourth herd of 58 cows with calves was left as an untreated control. On 7 Jul, 2 weeks after the boluses were administered, a fifth herd of 41 cows without calves were tagged with 2 Terminator tags/animal. The number of flies on one side of 10 randomly selected cows/herd was counted each wk for 11-wk posttreatment with the aid of binoculars between the hours of 0900 and 1200 EST.
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PATHAK, K. M. L., and M. B. CHHABRA. "Parasites and parasitic diseases of the Indian elephant,mithun and yak : An overview." Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 82, no. 12 (December 13, 2012): 1459–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v82i12.25652.
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The Indian elephant, mithun and yak are utility animals. Each of them is a valuable natural resource and important constituent of India’s unique biodiversity. However, their numbers have declined and their existence is facing several challenges, of which a major one is parasites and diseases caused by them. While much of the information on the parasites of Indian elephant dates back to the pre-mechanization British era, the setting up of dedicated Research Centres on Mithun and Yak by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, has resulted in generation of considerable research data and regular flow of information in recent years. The elephant is unique regarding most of its internal (and a few external) parasites not being shared with other livestock hosts. As per updated information, the Indian elephant is parasitized by 39 helminths, made up by 8 trematodes including the most pathogenic Fasciola jacksoni, 2 cestodes and 29 nematodes including 3 filariid worms; among protozoa, only Trypanosoma, Babesia and ciliates are known; arthropods include the stomach bot Cobboldia, the louse Haematomyzus and atleast 4 genera of ticks. The mithun, being phylogenetically related to cattle, seems to share the same set of internal and external parasites. To date 12 nematode genera, 6 trematode genera and 2 cestodes have been recorded; protozoa comprised coccidia (8 Eimeria species identified so far), Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Balantidium. In addition, serological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum exists. Of arthropods, only ticks are reported. The parasites of yak are not fully explored. So far 11 nematode genera, 7 trematode genera and 3 cestodes (2 of them only as cysts) are on record. Among protozoa, only Eimeria (2 species identified) and in arthropods, warbles (Hypoderma), 6 genera of ticks, louse, flea and biting flies have been reported in India.
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Gwinner, E. "Circadian and circannual programmes in avian migration." Journal of Experimental Biology 199, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 39–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.199.1.39.
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In migratory birds, endogenous daily (circadian) and annual (circannual) rhythms serve as biological clocks that provide the major basis for their temporal orientation. Circannual rhythms are responsible for the initiation of migration both in autumn and spring. This function of timing migrations is particularly important for birds that spend the winter close to the equator where the environment is too constant or irregular to provide accurate timing cues. In addition, circannual rhythms produce programmes that determine both the temporal and the spatial course of migration. In Sylvia warblers, the time programmes controlling autumn migration are organized in a species- or population-specific manner. It has been proposed that, in first-year migrants, the time programme for autumn migration plays a major role in determining migratory distance, thus providing the vector component in a mechanism of vector navigation. It is not yet clear, however, whether this programme does indeed determine migratory distance or whether it only provides the temporal framework within which other factors determine how far a bird flies. Evidence against the first alternative comes from findings indicating that migratory activity can be drastically modified by a constellation of rather specific, but highly relevant, factors and that the resulting changes in migratory activity are not compensated by subsequent increases or decreases of migratory activity. In normally day-active but nocturnally migrating birds, circannual signals cause alterations in the circadian system leading to the development of nocturnal activity. Although the nature of these signals is unknown, there is evidence that changes in the diurnal pattern of melatonin secretion by the pineal gland are associated with, and possibly causally involved in, the waxing and waning of nocturnal activity. These changes in the melatonin pattern presumably also affect general synchronization properties of the circadian system to Zeitgebers in such a way that circadian rhythms adjust faster to new conditions after long transmeridian flights.
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Kaufman, Phillip E., and Emma N. I. Weeks. "Cattle Grub Management." EDIS 2013, no. 5 (May 31, 2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-in979-2013.
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Immature warble flies, or cattle grubs, infest and harm livestock throughout the world. Warble flies also are known as “heel flies” because they cause cattle to kick at themselves, and “gad flies” because they cause cattle to “gad about” in an attempt to evade the flies. Two species of cattle grubs occur in the U.S.A., the common cattle grub, and the northern cattle grub. This 6-page fact sheet was written by P. E. Kaufman and E. N. I. Weeks and published by the UF Department of Entomology and Nematology, March 2013.
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in979
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Kaufman, Phillip E., Philip G. Koehler, and Jerry F. Butler. "Cattle Grubs." EDIS 2006, no. 6 (March 30, 2006). http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-ig126-2006.
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Cattle grubs (Figure 1) are the immature stages of warble flies or heel flies (Figure 2). Two species of cattle grubs occur in the United States -- the common cattle grub, Hypoderma lineatum, and the northern cattle grub, Hypoderma bovis. The common cattle grub is found in Florida; however the northern cattle grub is usually found in cattle shipped to Florida from other states. Recent observations have indicated that the northern cattle grub may be becoming established in Florida. This document is ENY-270 (IG126), one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date: May 1995. Revised: March 2006.
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Khallawi, Muttlak Mahdi, and Saleh H. Jazaa. "Case report Human urinary tract myiasis in Al-Amara city/ Iraq." International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences 9, SPL1 (April 16, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.26452/ijrps.v9ispl1.1414.
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Myiasis has been defined as infestation with larvae of Diptera,on live animals and human. There are three main families of Diptera cause Myiasis,Oestridae (bot and warble flies); Calliphoridae(blowflies) and Sarcophagidae (flesh fly). Larvae of Fannia scalaris is the most frequent cause of urinary myiasis. Clinically,Myiasis is classified as dermal,respiratory system,nasopharyngeal,ophthalmic,auricular,gastric,rectal,intestinal and finally urinary myiasis which is the most uncommon type in human,because cloth protection and inaccessibility of genital area to flies prevents them from laying eggs,Psychoda albipennis (P. albipennis) can flourish in the environment of a moist bathroom and may cause urogenital myiasis in humans. The urine specimen was taken from the patient who contracted from this larvae and the specimen was examined to detect and identify this larvae. The larvae are feeding on bacteria. The prevention criteria to prevent the myiasis are including the good hygiene during defection and micturition.
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Fu, Yong, Wei Li, Hong Duo, Zhi-Hong Guo, Ying Li, and Yan-Ming Zhang. "Genetic diversity and population genetics of the warble flies Hypoderma bovis and H. sinense in Qinghai Province, China." Parasites & Vectors 9, no. 1 (March 12, 2016). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13071-016-1416-6.
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