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1
Gravelet-Blondin, L. R., S. J. Barclay, C. M. Carliell, and C. A. Buckley. "Management of water resources in South Africa with respect to the textile industry." Water Science and Technology 36, no. 2-3 (July 1, 1997): 303–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0544.
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South Africa is a water scarce country with an average annual rainfall of less than 60% of the world average. It is therefore important to encourage industries to minimise water consumption, and recycle and re-use water and effluent where possible. The South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry is responsible for the management of water resources in South Africa, thereby ensuring the provision of adequate water supplies of acceptable quality for all recognised users. Of the industrial effluents produced in South Africa, textile effluents are considered to be one of the most problematic in the KwaZulu-Natal coastal area, especially in terms of colour, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and salinity (total dissolved solids, TDS). Of these, colour is perceived to be the most problematic as it is visual pollution and gives rise to public complaints. The Department has been actively involved, through negotiations with management and local authorities, in encouraging the textile industries to reduce the colour load discharged from the factories. Four case studies will be presented describing the approach taken by the Department to solve the problem of textile effluent discharge.
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Gouws, Rupert, and Estie Le Roux. "Efficiency and cost analysis of a designed in-line water heating system compared to a conventional water heating system in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 23, no. 3 (August 1, 2012): 9–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2012/v23i3a3167.
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In this paper, the authors compares the efficiency and cost of a designed in-line water heating system with a conventional water heating system (geyser) in South Africa. The paper provides an overview on water heating systems and heating elements and provides the typical water consumption required by an average household in South Africa. A summary on the design of the in-line water heating system together with a system cost analysis is provided. The designed in-line water heating system takes the energy consumption, temperature and pressure into account during operation. The energy consumption and cost of the designed in-line water heating system is compared to a conventional water geyser. A cost analysis on the designed in-line water heating system, heat pumps and solar water heating systems are also provided. The energy consumption results showed that the conventional water geyser on average consumes 2.5% more energy to heat one litre of water from 15 °C to 60 °C, than the designed in-line water heating system to supply one litre of water at 60°C.
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Veste, Maik, Thomas Littmann, Anton Kunneke, Ben du Toit, and Thomas Seifert. "Windbreaks as part of climate-smart landscapes reduce evapotranspiration in vineyards, Western Cape Province, South Africa." Plant, Soil and Environment 66, No. 3 (March 30, 2020): 119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/616/2019-pse.
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Under the conditions of climate change in South Africa, ecological and technical measures are needed to reduce the water consumption of irrigated crops. Windbreak hedges are long-rated systems in agriculture that significantly reduce wind speed. Their possibilities to reduce evapotranspiration and water demand are being investigated at a vineyard in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Detailed measurements of meteorological parameters relevant for the computation of reference and crop-specific evapotranspiration following the FAO 56 approaches within a vineyard in the Western Cape Province of South Africa have shown the beneficial effect of an existing hedgerow consisting of 6 m high poplars (Populus simonii (Carrière) Wesm.). With reference to a control station in the open field, the mean wind speed in a position about 18 m from the hedgerow at canopy level (2 m) was reduced by 27.6% over the entire year and by 39.2% over the summer growing season. This effect leads to a parallel reduction of reference evapotranspiration of 15.5% during the whole year and of 18.4% over the growing season. When applying empirical crop-specific K<sub>c</sub> values for well-irrigated grapes, the reduction of evapotranspiration is 18.8% over the summer growth period. The introduced tree shelterbelts are a suitable eco-engineering approach to reduce water consumption and to enhance water saving in vineyards.
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Meyer, J. P., and M. Tshimankinda. "Domestic hot-water consumption in South African apartments." Energy 23, no. 1 (January 1998): 61–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0360-5442(97)00069-8.
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Meyer, J. P., and M. Tshimankinda. "Domestic hot water consumption in south african townhouses." Energy Conversion and Management 39, no. 7 (May 1998): 679–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0196-8904(97)00048-4.
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Oliver, Neil N., and Diederick Gerhardus Brümmer. "Factors influencing water consumption in South African schools." Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology 5, no. 1 (April 3, 2007): 81–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17260530710746623.
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Bourne, D. E., and Lesley T. Bourne. "Water Consumption Patterns among Individuals in Cape Town." Water Science and Technology 21, no. 12 (December 1, 1989): 1805–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1989.0174.
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Liquid consumption patterns among individuals in Cape Town, South Africa, were ascertained. Two dietary surveys, one in summer and the other in winter, (n=1445 and 1393 persons) were carried out using a 24-hour recall of all food and drink items consumed. Total water consumption was calculated by using food composition tables. Water consumption was categorised by source: domestic tap water, water added in commercial processing, and water naturally bound in food. Mean total consumption was 1770 ml/head.day. Only 52% of the water consumed came from the tap at home. Water consumption was also classified by source from solid and liquid foods. 20.5% of total liquid is derived from solid foods.
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Mathenjwa, S., T. Bond, B. Ndwandwe, S. Xulu, S. L. Kiambi, C. Buckley, and E. Roma. "Development and testing of a water-efficient laundry system in informal settlements of eThekwini municipality, South Africa." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2, no. 1 (March 1, 2012): 31–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.068.
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In the informal settlements of eThekwini municipality, South Africa, laundry activities are typically undertaken at local standpipes and washbasins of community ablution blocks (CABs), and are characterised by high levels of water consumption and greywater production. Since greywater contains a high pollution load, including sodium tripolyphosphate, it poses a significant environmental and public health risk. The overall objective of this study was to develop and test a water-efficient laundry system designed for informal settlements. Initial fieldwork at a standpipe and CAB in eThekwini municipality showed respectively 56 and 58% of users were in favour of a water-efficient laundry system based upon sharing washing water. Subsequent laboratory work assessed crosscurrent and countercurrent cascades for washing clothes. Under optimised washing conditions at a detergent dose of 5 g/kg water, specific water consumption of 5 kg water/kg clothes and three rinsing phases it was determined that the countercurrent method wasted 33% less water. Thus the countercurrent cascade has great potential for minimising greywater production in South African informal settlements. Future work should concentrate on evaluating greywater production, detergent usage and social acceptability in the field.
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Sparks, Debbie, Amos Madhlopa, Samantha Keen, Mascha Moorlach, Anthony Dane, Pieter Krog, and Thuli Dlamini. "Renewable energy choices and their water requirements in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 25, no. 4 (December 19, 2014): 80–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2014/v25i4a2241.
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South Africa is an arid country, where water supply is often obtained from a distant source. There is increasing pressure on the limited water resources due to economic and population growth, with a concomitant increase in the energy requirement for water production. This problem will be exacerbated by the onset of climate change. Recently, there have been concerns about negative impacts arising from the exploitation of energy resources. In particular, the burning of fossil fuels is significantly contributing to climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. In addition, fossil fuels are being depleted, and contributing to decreased energy security. As a result of this, the international community has initiated various interventions, including the transformation of policy and regulatory instruments, to promote sustainable energy. With this in mind, South Africa is making policy and regulatory shifts in line with international developments. Renewable energy is being promoted as one way of achieving sustainable energy provision in the country. However, some issues require scrutiny in order to understand the water footprint of renewable energy production. Due to the large gap that exists between water supply and demand, trade-offs in water allocation amongst different users are critical. In this vein, the main objective of this study was to investigate and review renewable energy choices and water requirements in South Africa. Data were acquired through a combination of a desktop study and expert interviews. Water withdrawal and consumption levels at a given stage of energy production were investigated. Most of the data was collected from secondary sources. Results show that there is limited data on all aspects of water usage in the production chain of energy, accounting in part for the significant variations in the values of water intensity that are reported in the literature. It is vital to take into account all aspects of the energy life cycle to enable isolation of stages where significant amounts of water are used. It is found that conventional fuels (nuclear and fossil fuels) withdraw significant quantities of water over the life-cycle of energy production, especially for thermoelectric power plants operated with a wet-cooling system. The quality of water is also adversely affected in some stages of energy production from these fuels. On the other hand, solar photovoltaic and wind energy exhibit the lowest demand for water, and could perhaps be considered the most viable renewable options in terms of water withdrawal and consumption.
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Tayob, Shaheed. "Halal Consumption as Ethical Practice: Negotiating Halal Certification in South Africa." Islamic Africa 11, no. 1 (December 24, 2020): 71–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/21540993-01101006.
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Abstract In recent decades, the halal certification logo has emerged as a global phenomenon. Halal certification is an attempt to produce a new discursive and material basis for the practice of halal. Halal is extended into new places and products. In South Africa Muslim consumers now query the halal status of tomato sauce, bottled water and even food consumed at the homes of friends and family. Certification is a technology of halal whereby consumers self-regulate practice in new ways. However, the transformations of halal certification have not been complete. Documentary inspection and molecular investigation linked to new kinds of information and new technology have not necessarily eclipsed the importance of intra-Muslim trade, niyya (orientation/intention) and trust for the practice of halal. This paper considers the narratives and practices of middle-class Muslims in South Africa towards an understanding of the complex ways in which halal is practiced and transformed.
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Hoy, L., and S. Stelli. "Water conservation education as a tool to empower water users to reduce water use." Water Supply 16, no. 1 (August 19, 2015): 202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2015.073.
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There is a finite supply of global fresh water available for human consumption, which is in great demand from both humans and the environment. As technology and populations increase, so do the demands and pressure on this limited resource. Demand far too often outstrips supply, requiring authorities to impose restrictions on water use. Recent research undertaken by Rand Water, in the Rand Water supply area (in and around Gauteng, South Africa) points to the desire from end users to be empowered with knowledge to make their own decisions on water use reduction, rather than to have authoritative restrictions imposed on them. This observation indicates the importance of water conservation education and awareness campaigns to facilitate the reduction in water consumption by consumers, and suggests that education is a priority in the implementation of water conservation strategies.
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Bischoff-Mattson, Zachary, Gillian Maree, Coleen Vogel, Amanda Lynch, David Olivier, and Deon Terblanche. "Shape of a water crisis: practitioner perspectives on urban water scarcity and ‘Day Zero’ in South Africa." Water Policy 22, no. 2 (March 27, 2020): 193–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.233.
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Abstract The interruption of essential water services in Cape Town, foreshadowed as ‘Day Zero,’ is one of several recent examples of urban water scarcity connected to the language of urgent climate change. Johannesburg, with its larger and growing population and deeply enmeshed water and power infrastructures, is currently regarded as one drought away from disaster. As a result, the lessons to be learned from Cape Town are under active debate in South Africa. We used Q method to examine the structure of perspectives on urban water scarcity among South African water management practitioners. Our results illustrate distinct viewpoints differentiated by focus on corruption and politics, supply and demand systems, and social justice concerns as well as a distinct cohort of pragmatic optimists. Our analysis underscores the significance of public trust and institutional effectiveness, regardless of otherwise sound policy or infrastructure tools. As practitioners explicitly connect domains of competency to solvable and critical problems, integrated systems approaches will require deliberate interventions. Furthermore, urban water crises exacerbate and are exacerbated by existing experiences of racial and economic inequality, but this effect is masked by focus on demand management of average per capita water consumption and characterization of water scarcity as ‘the new normal.’
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Pretorius, Anri, and Surika van Rooyen. "Investigating The Financial Implications Of Alternative Water Heating Systems." International Business & Economics Research Journal (IBER) 12, no. 7 (July 16, 2013): 781. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/iber.v12i7.7966.
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Electricity tariffs charged by the South African electricity supplier (Eskom) have sharply increased over the past three years and there is no indication of what to expect in the future with regard to electricity tariffs. Many South Africans are searching for ways to save on their monthly electricity bills by seeking out alternative water heating systems. The purpose of this study is to determine the most financially viable alternative water heating system for a household in South Africa using various investment appraisal techniques and taking into consideration the size of the household. The study found that the five investment options identified in the literature review would all, to some extent, be financially viable to implement within households with high, as well as low, volume hot water consumption. Although some of the water heating systems were found to be more financially viable than others, the conclusion was made that a savings will be generated on the monthly electricity bill no matter what alternative water heating system was to be installed in the place of a conventional geyser.
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Moroke, Ntebogang Dinah. "Modeling and forecasting utility resources usage in an emerging country." Risk Governance and Control: Financial Markets and Institutions 6, no. 4 (2016): 392–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/rcgv6i4c3art4.
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The purpose of this study is to compare the forecasting efficiency of two univariate time series models, the seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) and the Holt-Winter’s triple exponential smoothing. A monthly electricity and water consumption data used was sourced from the South African Reserve Bank. This data was available for the period Q3 2008 to Q1 2016. Upon subjecting the data to the diagnostic tests of normality, heteroscedasticity and stationarity, parameters of the selected model were estimated using the maximum likelihood method. Although the two models were found to be good estimators and globally significant, Holt Winter’s triple exponential smoothing (HWTES) was selected as the best forecasting model based on the small forecast errors generated. The forecasts revealed that utility resources demand in South Africa are expected to be high for the period 2016 to 2017 and the trend extends to periods ahead. Using these findings, better strategies on the production and distribution of electricity and water can be formulated. Lives of people in South Africa could also be improved.
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Raji, Iyioluwa Busuyi, Emile Hoffmann, Adeline Ngie, and Frank Winde. "Assessing Uranium Pollution Levels in the Rietspruit River, Far West Rand Goldfield, South Africa." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16 (August 11, 2021): 8466. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168466.
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The Rietspruit is located in Gauteng Province, South Africa, within the Witwatersrand Basin. The basin is noted for its vast gold deposit. The river extends for about 60 km before joining the Vaal River. The aim of this study was to determine the concentration of uranium in the Rietspruit and the factors that influenced the concentration of U at each of the sites. The source of uranium in the river is the discharge from the gold mine and the mine wastes. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry was used for water and sediment analysis in order to determine the concentration of U. High concentration of U was found in the river water and sediment, which is above the permissible limit of U. The water is used for irrigation of farmlands, cattle watering and for human consumption despite the high concentration of uranium in it. Ingestion of uranium is dangerous to human health. Due to the toxic nature of uranium, consumption of the water for domestic use and agriculture purpose must be discouraged.
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Simonis, J. J., A. K. Basson, and T. Selepe. "Removal of microbes to World Health Organization requirements using a locally developed, low cost, micro-porous, ceramic water filter." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4, no. 4 (July 22, 2014): 620–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.042.
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The quality of drinking water can no longer be taken for granted and has been the subject of tremendous attention from pressure groups and the media due to poor service delivery in South Africa. Furthermore, many of the older water treatment plants are incapable of effectively reducing microbes to safe levels. Unfortunately there are various definitions of ‘safe’. The South African government considers 10 or less viable Cryptosporidium oocysts an infective dose, while the USA and UK governments believe that one viable Cryptosporidium oocyst is an infective dose. To add to the confusion the World Health Organization recommends above 99.99% microbial reduction as safe. In Africa it really depends on how compromised your immune system is and age and nutritional level at the time of consumption of contaminated water. How can anyone protect themselves from consuming water contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms? The ceramic filter offers the poor a simple, effective and economical way of producing potable water. We report on the successful testing of a low-cost, locally produced ceramic filter (OUTBAC) with removal efficiencies in excess of 99.99% that therefore meets the World Health Organization household water treatment system criterion for safe water for a family of five at an affordable cost per year.
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Aneck-Hahn, Natalie H., Magdalena C. Van Zijl, Pieter Swart, Barry Truebody, Bettina Genthe, Jessica Charmier, and Christiaan De Jager. "Estrogenic activity, selected plasticizers and potential health risks associated with bottled water in South Africa." Journal of Water and Health 16, no. 2 (February 16, 2018): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.043.
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Abstract Potential endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are present in bottled water from various countries. In South Africa (SA), increased bottled water consumption and concomitant increases in plastic packaging create important consequences for public health. This study aimed to screen SA bottled water for estrogenic activity, selected target chemicals and assessing potential health risks. Ten bottled water brands were exposed to 20 °C and 40 °C over 10 days. Estrogenic activity was assessed using the recombinant yeast estrogen screen (YES) and the T47D-KBluc reporter gene assay. Solid phase extracts of samples were analyzed for bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), selected phthalates, bisphenol-A (BPA), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), 17β-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), and ethynylestradiol (EE2) using gas chromatography–mass spectrophotometry. Using a scenario-based health risk assessment, human health risks associated with bottled water consumption were evaluated. Estrogenic activity was detected at 20 °C (n = 2) and at 40 °C (n = 8). Estradiol equivalent (EEq) values ranged from 0.001 to 0.003 ng/L. BPA concentrations ranged from 0.9 ng/L to 10.06 ng/L. Although EEqs and BPA concentrations were higher in bottled water stored at 40 °C compared to 20 °C, samples posed an acceptable risk for a lifetime of exposure. Irrespective of temperature, bottled water from SA contained chemicals with acceptable health risks.
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Tau, P., Ro Anyasi, and K. Mearns. "Evaluating the Pollution of the Apies River in Pretoria South Africa." E3S Web of Conferences 241 (2021): 01004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202124101004.
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This study was done to assess the pollution of Apies River using both chemical and microbiological methods. The pollution index of the river revealed that the concentration of most pollutants downstream is more than 50% of the upstream concentration. The natural sources of the pollution in Apies River are the weathering of geological formations; whereas the anthropogenic sources are agriculture; Municipal WWTW and direct deposit of waste into the river. The natural sources of pollution contributed towards chemical pollution; whereas the anthropogenic sources contributed both chemical and microbiological pollution. The Apies River is hypertrophic downstream of the Rooiwal WWTW; however the current physiochemical state of the River warrants its ability to be used for safe irrigation in agricultural practices. The current microbiological state of the River does make it harmful for human consumption especially as drinking water; however, the water should be boiled prior to use to inactivate the bacteria present in the water. The study was able to provide in analysis the variation of the contaminants in the River.
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Hasan, Ali, Bhekisipho Twala, Khmaies Ouahada, and Tshilidzi Marwala. "ENERGY USAGE OPTIMISATION IN SOUTH AFRICAN MINES." Archives of Mining Sciences 59, no. 1 (March 1, 2014): 53–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/amsc-2014-0004.
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Abstract In recent years, South Africa has encountered a critical electricity supply which necessitated the implementation of demand-side management (DSM) projects. Load shifting and energy (EE) efficiency projects were introduced in mining sector to reduce the electricity usage during day peak time. As the compressed air networks and the water pumping systems are using large amounts of the mines’ electricity, possible ways were investigated and implemented to improve and optimise the energy consumption and to reduce the costs. Implementing DSM and EE in four different mines resulted in achieving the desired energy savings and load-shifting.
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Madolo, S. D., A. Telukdarie, and A. Kumar. "Energy–water and GHG nexus: A South African water industry case." Water Practice and Technology 13, no. 3 (September 1, 2018): 673–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2018.073.
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Abstract Water and energy are resources that are dependent on each other. Water is needed for the production of energy for fuel extraction, cooling power plants, and processing of fossil fuels. In water cycles, energy is needed for pumping, treatment and distribution of water and wastewater to and from customers. In South Africa (SA), the energy used in the water industry is generated mostly from fossil fuels, which has a significant negative impact on the environment. This research reviews a representative subset of the SA water industry to evaluate energy efficiency and harmful gas emissions optimisation potential. The first component of this study involves a review of the current energy efficiency potential in water distribution systems in SA. On the basis of a literature review, three technologies/practices were identified as being imperative in optimising water utilities in SA. The second part of this study involves the implementation of some performance indicators that illustrate the interdependence of water loss, energy consumption and CO2, NOX and SOX emissions. These indicators are used to compare a few possible mitigation scenarios involving water loss reduction and increasing the system's energy efficiency. The third component of research is developing a novel multi-layered structural water distribution system model by incorporating 29 metrics extracted from the literature reviewed. Analysis of this model is then conducted using a MULTI-MOORA (Multi-Objective Optimization by Ratio Analysis) technique accompanied by a Triangular Fuzzy Number set. The aim of this was to assist water utility managers to identify the most influential performance indicators for attaining the nexus objectives.
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Lefrançois, Simon, Philippe Doyon-Poulin, Louis Gosselin, and Marcel Lacroix. "OPTIMIZATION OF ICEBERG TOWING VELOCITY FOR WATER SUPPLY." Transactions of the Canadian Society for Mechanical Engineering 32, no. 3-4 (September 2008): 537–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/tcsme-2008-0036.
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A mathematical model for determining the optimum towing velocity of tabular icebergs is presented. The optimization problem is formulated in terms of a benefit function that takes into account the ice mass delivered and the total fuel consumption for the tow. Results indicate that the optimum towing velocity is mainly affected by the water-to-fuel cost ratio. It is shown that towing icebergs from Antarctica to South Africa is a profitable way of supplying fresh-water provided that the towing velocity is optimized with the proposed method.
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Gouws, R., and E. le Roux. "Design and heat flow analysis of a commercial energy efficient in-line water heating system." World Journal of Engineering 11, no. 3 (June 1, 2014): 239–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1260/1708-5284.11.3.239.
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In this paper, the authors provide the design, heat flow analysis and pressure analysis of a commercial energy efficient in-line water heating system in South Africa. The designed commercial in-line water heating system captures the energy consumption, flow rate, temperature and pressure during operation and accordingly responds on these values to increase the energy efficiency of the system. The user is constantly aware of the energy consumption and cost during operation and can choose to switch to a more economical setting to conserve energy. A central processor with PID control was used to optimize the energy consumption of the in-line water heating system. An overview on the design and results of the heat flow analysis and pressure analysis are provided.
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Ijumba, Pamela, and Adoniya Ben Sebitosi. "Evaluating the impact of consumer behaviour on the performance of domestic solar water heating systems in South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 21, no. 1 (February 1, 2010): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2010/v21i1a3247.
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South Africa experienced a rapid expansion in the electric power consumer base after 1994 that was not matched by corresponding investment in the country’s generation capacity. By the dawn of 2008, the situation had reached a critical point, with regular countrywide blackouts and load shedding and is expected to persist for several years, before the proposed new base stations can come online. Currently, 92% of the country’s electricity is generated in coal-based power stations and are responsible for the country’s heavy carbon footprint. Additionally this power must crisscross the country to distant load centres via an aging transmission infrastructure and in the process massive amounts of energy are lost particularly during peak power demand. Electricity consumption in South African households accounts for approximately 35% of peak demand, with water heating constituting 40% of that. The country has abundant sunshine and solar water heating technology and offers one of the most viable compiementary solutions to the country’s energy and environmental crises. Moreover the location of the systems at the consumer end means that the need to upgrade the transmission infrastructure can also be differed.Application of technology alone however, may not necessarily result in the required energy savings particularly in cases of uninformed consumer usage. In this paper the authors evaluate the impact of consumer behaviour on the performance of domestic solar water heaters in South Africa and suggest measures that could be taken to optimize this performance.
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Turpie, D. W. F., C. J. Steenkamp, and R. B. Townsend. "Industrial Application of Formed-in-Place Membrane Ultrafiltration and Automated Membrane-Forming in the Treatment and Recycle of Rinse-Water during the Scouring of Raw Wool." Water Science and Technology 25, no. 10 (May 1, 1992): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0242.
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Fresh water consumption in the scouring of raw wool at a Mill in South Africa has been dramatically reduced by a combination of two factors, namely the purification and recycling of some of the wash water for reuse during rinsing, and the recycle of water from the firm's biological degradation ponds for use in the earlier stages of wool washing and in neutralising. Purification is undertaken by means of formed-in-place hydrous zirconium (IV) oxide membranes which are deposited automatically on porous sintered stainless steel supports. While about the same total quantity of water is used to wash the wool as traditionally, fresh water consumption on selected washlines has been reduced by approximately half.
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Sheridan, C. M., F. F. Bauer, S. Burton, and L. Lorenzen. "A critical process analysis of wine production to improve cost, quality and environmental performance." Water Science and Technology 51, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 39–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0005.
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Wine production in South Africa is delocalised, with numerous small-to-medium sized producers within several regions within the Western Cape. Whilst adapting to new technological changes, producers have to respond to pressure from consumers and governments regarding the environmental consequences of winemaking, especially water usage and pollution. To date, no systematic analysis integrating the various aspects of winemaking in South Africa has been done. This study assessed both physical inputs and outputs. A detailed questionnaire was developed to broadly assess these parameters and was submitted to all cellars in South Africa. Case studies were performed at three cellars during the 2002 harvest season to validate the questionnaires and collect missing information. Based on this, and a cocurrent project, the following parameters were correlated to the tons of grapes presses per annum: effluent parameters which include chemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, total dissolved solids, sodium adsorption ratio, quantity of effluent; wine produced, water consumed, and electricity consumed. These parameters were used to develop an input/output model. This model may be used by wineries to predict their water and electrical consumption, wine produced and effluent characteristics provided they know the tonnage of grapes pressed per year.
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Jonker, B., and T. Abiye. "Groundwater potential of the eastern Kalahari region of South Africa." South African Journal of Geology 120, no. 3 (September 1, 2017): 385–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.25131/gssajg.120.3.385.
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Abstract An integrated approach involving geological, borehole data, hydrogeochemical and environmental isotope analyses was used to determine the groundwater potential of the eastern Kalahari region of South Africa, an area to the west of Mahikeng that stretches northward from the Orange River into Botswana. The total groundwater resource potential for the eastern Kalahari region of South Africa is estimated at 10127 Mm3/a, with the Kalahari Group aquifer showing the greatest potential, comprising 51% of the total resource. The storage capacity of the Kalahari Group aquifer (7130 Mm3) is also impressive, estimated to be more than twice that of the dolomite aquifer (2728 Mm3). Despite having such great potential, the aquifer is not actively recharged and is often associated with very saline water that is not suitable for human and livestock consumption. The limestone and dolomite aquifers of the Campbell Rand Subgroup, as well as the weathered granitic rocks of the Archaean basement, are considered as the most prospective water bearing formations, with a groundwater resource potential estimate of 1981 Mm3/a and 1845 Mm3/a, respectively. Aquifers with the least potential in the project area comprise the fractured basement rocks of the Kraaipan - Amalia greenstone belt, with a groundwater resource potential of 26 Mm3/a, and the fractured sedimentary rocks of the Asbestos Hills Subgroup, with a groundwater resource potential of 108 Mm3/a. The calculated groundwater storage and resource potential in the eastern Kalahari region of South Africa satisfies a large proportion of the water demand in the region.
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Rankoana, Sejabaledi Agnes. "Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity." International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 12, no. 5 (August 28, 2020): 587–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-04-2020-0033.
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Purpose The study explored the impacts of climate change on water resources, and the community-based adaptation practices adopted to ensure water security in a rural community in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Design/methodology/approach The study was conducted in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The participatory approach was used to allow community members to share their challenges of water scarcity, and the measures they have developed to cope with inconsistent water supply. Findings The study results show that the community obtains water for household consumption from the reticulation system supplied by Mutale River and the community borehole. These resources are negatively impacted by drought, change in the frequency and distribution of rainfall, and increased temperature patterns. The water levels in the river and borehole have declined, resulting in unsustainable water supply. The community-based adaptation practices facilitated by the water committee include observance of restrictions and regulations on the water resources use. Others involve securing water from neighbouring resources. Originality/value This type of community-based action in response to climate change could be used as part of rural water management strategies under climate change.
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Williams, Stephanie Paige, Gladman Thondhlana, and Harn Wei Kua. "Electricity Use Behaviour in a High-Income Neighbourhood in Johannesburg, South Africa." Sustainability 12, no. 11 (June 3, 2020): 4571. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12114571.
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Worldwide, households’ consumption of electricity contributes to a substantial proportion of total national energy demand. Thus, the residential sector is a major entity in efforts to define and achieve global sustainability goals. Understanding electricity use behaviour and factors underlying behaviour is critical for designing behaviour change interventions, particularly in contexts characterised by fast-growing economies, burgeoning number of high-income households, and consumption growth. However, relative to developed economies, very little is known on this subject in South Africa. Using structured questionnaires, this study examines electricity use behaviour among high-income households in Johannesburg, South Africa. Findings indicate evidence of electricity-saving behaviour, but the proportion of households doing so was less than 50% for many actions, indicative of widespread wasteful habits. Other particular wasteful electricity use habits include leaving electronic gadgets and appliances on ‘standby’ mode, not turning off electric water heaters and not defrosting fridges without automatic settings. The findings lend support to the positive and negative influence of self-transcendence and egoistic values respectively on environmental behaviour, but other value orientations did not yield significant relationships. The implications of the findings on practical interventions for and theoretical constructs underlying strategies for environmentally-sustainable behaviour are discussed.
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Tangwe, Stephen loh, and Michael Simon. "Quantification of the viability of residential air source heat pump water heaters as potential replacement for geysers in South Africa." Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology 17, no. 2 (April 1, 2019): 456–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jedt-05-2017-0042.
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Purpose This paper aims to compute demand, consumption and other avoidance saving by replacing existing geysers with split and integrated type air source heat pump (ASHP) water heaters, to prove the potential of both ASHP water heaters in both winter and summer by virtue of their coefficient of performance (COP) during the vapour compression refrigeration cycles and to demonstrate that despite the viability of both split and integrated ASHP system, the latter exhibits a better performance in terms of its COP and achievable savings and load factor. Design/methodology/approach This research emphasised the use of the data acquisition system housing various temperature sensors, power metres, flow metre, ambient temperature and relative humidity sensor to determine electrical energy consumption and useful thermal energy gained by the hot water in a geyser and storage tanks of residential ASHP water heaters. The load factors, average power and electrical energy consumptions for the 150 L high-pressure geyser, a 150 L split and integrated type ASHP water heaters were evaluated based on the controlled volume (150, 50 and 100 L) of daily hot water drawn off. Findings The results depicted that the average electrical energy consumed and load factors of the summer months for the geyser, split and integrated type ASHP water heaters were 312.3, 111.7 and 121.1 kWh and 17.9, 10.2 and 16.7 per cent, respectively. Finally, the simple payback period for both the split and integrated type ASHP water heaters were determined to be 3.9 and 5.2 years, respectively. By the application of the Eskom’s projected tariff hikes over the years, the payback periods for the split and integrated ASHP water heaters could be reduced to 3.3 and 4.1 years, respectively. Research limitations/implications The experiments were conducted in a controlled outdoor research facility as it was going to be of great challenge in conducting both experiments simultaneously in a specific home. The category of the different types of ASHP water heaters was limited to one due to the cost implication. The experiment was also conducted at a single location, which is not a full representation of all the ambient conditions of the different regions of South Africa. Practical implications The experiments were done with a specific controlled volume of hot water drawn off from each of the three hot water heating devices. The experiments was structuring controlled to a specific volume of hot water drawn off and at specific period of the day and hence to not cater for random drawers and intermittent drawn off. Social implications The findings help to assure homeowners that irrespective of the type of ASHP water heaters installed in their residence, they can be guarantee of year-round performance and a favourable payback period provided their hot water consumption is over 200 L per day. Also, although the split type ASHP water heater performed better than the integrated system the cost of installation and maintenance will be higher in a split type in comparison to the integrated type. Finally, by successful implementation of either of the ASHP water heaters the home owner can substantially save of his hot water bill. Originality/value The experimental design and methodology is the first of its kind to be conducted in South Africa. The results and interpretation were obtained from original data collected from the set of experiments conducted. Also, the authors are able to show that the introduction of back up element in an ASHP unit to run simultaneously with the vapour compression refrigeration cycles of the ASHP can reduce the COP of the overall system.
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Ngxumeshe, Ayanda M., Motshekwe Ratsaka, Bohani Mtileni, and Khathutshelo Nephawe. "Sustainable Application of Livestock Water Footprints in Different Beef Production Systems of South Africa." Sustainability 12, no. 23 (November 27, 2020): 9921. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12239921.
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There is an increase in requirement and competition for water, while water resources are decreasing at an accelerating rate. Agriculture is the biggest consumer of water and therefore has the largest water footprint, which is not yet known. The largest portion is acknowledged to be for producing animal products. Water footprints account for the amounts of water used to produce a commodity for consumption, measured along the commodity life cycle. Water withdrawals from surface and groundwater are accounted for when assessing the water footprint. The three identified major determinants of a water footprint of meat include feed conversion efficiency (FCE), feed composition, and feed origin, with the first two being influenced greatly by the animal production system. In South Africa (SA), the two distinct production systems are the intensive and extensive production systems. Intensifying beef animals improves FCE due to faster growths per kg feed consumed, reduced activity, and therefore reduced water footprint. Beef cattle in the extensive system consume a large component of roughages, while the intensive system has a high concentrate to roughage ratio. This theoretically increases the water footprint in the intensive system. The literature indicates large amounts of volumetric water footprint indicators of boneless beef in SA. Water footprint assessment is critical for enabling consumers to make well-informed and sound decisions when considering changes in their behavior due to the effect this has on social, economic, and environmental wellbeing. This paper aims to postulate the various issues associated with water usage in beef production. These include factors affecting the water footprint of beef production and the effects it has on various aspects of both the environment and social wellbeing. It further explores the various methods to assess the water footprint of a product.
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Meyer, J. P., and M. Tshimankinda. "Domestic hot water consumption by developing communities in South African traditional houses." Energy 21, no. 12 (December 1996): 1101–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0360-5442(96)00063-1.
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Meyer, J. P., and M. Tshimankinda. "Domestic hot-water consumption by South African developing communities living in shacks." International Journal of Energy Research 21, no. 12 (October 10, 1997): 1081–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-114x(19971010)21:12<1081::aid-er308>3.0.co;2-j.
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Graydon, Ryan Christopher, Paola Andrea Gonzalez, Abdiel Elias Laureano-Rosario, and Guillermo Reginald Pradieu. "Bottled water versus tap water." International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 20, no. 4 (May 7, 2019): 654–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijshe-01-2019-0003.
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Purpose Bottled water consumption continues to break records worldwide and its environmental impact is often underestimated by the consumer. Many factors affect individuals’ choices to consume tap water and bottled water including perceived health risks and water quality. The University of South Florida (USF) has joined a nationwide initiative to become carbon-neutral, and reducing bottled water consumption was a chosen strategy. The purpose of this study was to assess the risk perceptions and drinking water choices of the USF-Tampa campus community. Design/methodology/approach A sample of 561 students, faculty and staff members responded to an online survey. The survey contained questions about the use of bottled water and tap water, reusable water bottles, risk perceptions and demographics. Findings The results revealed that certain groups – undergraduate students and ethnic/racial minorities (e.g. black/African American, Hispanic/Latino) – drank significantly more bottled water. Among political ideologies, Liberals drank the least bottled water. Females and minorities had significantly greater risk perceptions of the tap water on campus. Important perceived benefits were tap water being less expensive and better for the environment than bottled water. Important perceived barriers were poor tasting tap water and the desire for filtered water. Originality/value The findings suggest the need for public health campaigns to increase awareness of health, environmental and financial consequences of bottled water consumption. Such campaigns should aim to discourage bottled water and any potential increased sugar-sweetened beverage consumption while promoting tap water consumption.
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Pillay, S. D., E. Friedrich, and C. A. Buckley. "Life cycle assessment of an industrial water recycling plant." Water Science and Technology 46, no. 9 (November 1, 2002): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0204.
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An industrial water recycling plant was recently commissioned in Durban, South Africa. As with any industrial activity there are environmental burdens associated with water recycling. To assess these burdens a relatively new environmental tool - the life cycle assessment (LCA) - was used. LCA is a systematic way to evaluate the environmental impact of a product or process. This study presents the environmental burdens associated with industrial water and identifies the areas for improvement for the processes involved for recycling water. It was shown that the majority of the environmental burdens for producing industrial water could be traced back to the consumption of electricity for the operation of the plant.
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Jansen, Ada, and Carl‐erik Schulz. "WATER DEMAND AND THE URBAN POOR: A STUDY OF THE FACTORS INFLUENCING WATER CONSUMPTION AMONG HOUSEHOLDS IN CAPE TOWN, SOUTH AFRICA." South African Journal of Economics 74, no. 3 (September 2006): 593–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2006.00084.x.
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Madibana, MJ, CH Fouché, and CM Mnisi. "Challenges facing emerging aquaculture entrepreneurs in South Africa and possible solutions." African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 20, no. 06 (October 31, 2020): 16689–702. http://dx.doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.94.18890.
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Despite aquaculture being hailed as the fastest growing farming sector in the world, South African aquaculture is still lagging behind. This article aims to highlight challenges (mostly beyond their control) that South Africa’s emerging aquaculture entrepreneurs have to endure in order to find a breakthrough into the industry. Availability of necessary resources such as land, water, infrastructure,financial support and access to markets, as well as crime are among challenges faced by these entrepreneurs on a daily basis. Limited human resources in capacity building, skills and aquaculture expertise also hinders the development and expansion of aquaculture in South Africa. Complex legislation governing aquaculture further limits the development of this sector to prospective investors. Fish and machinery theft in fish farms has an adverse effect, which had resulted in many enterprises closing down in recent years. South Africa is not a traditional fish-eating nation and this phenomenon has seen many emerging entrepreneurs struggling to locally commercialize their produce. It is well known that fish consumption provides human nutrition with essential nutrients necessary for normal body function. Thus,aquaculture has the potential to contribute to food and nutrition security and alleviate poverty in rural communities. However, plenty of initiatives need to be developed by government and the private sector to develop a sustainable aquaculture industry. These initiatives should involve the establishment of an aquaculture friendly legislation that would support emerging aquaculture entrepreneurs. Several financial institutions view aquaculture as a high-risk business,and as a consequence,decline financial support or loan requests from emerging farmers.Focused research as a strategic initiative to develop aquaculture species that would be first priority for local markets is encouraged. This article explores the challenges facing emerging entrepreneurs and suggests possible solutions that might assist in the development of the aquaculture sector in South Africa. We postulate that constructive and regular engagements between the government and private sector is a key to a sustainable and prosperous aquaculture sector in South Africa.
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Mattson, Eric, and Mark C. Belk. "Intraspecific Morphological Variation in Two Common Marine Fish Species from South Africa." Open Fish Science Journal 6, no. 1 (November 29, 2013): 87–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874401x01306010087.
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Intraspecific morphological variation in fish is typically associated with sexual dimorphism, or one of three common environmental gradients: variation in intensity of predation, variation in water velocity, or variation in feeding niche. The preponderance of examples of environment-associated morphological variation within fish species has been documented in freshwater systems. It is not clear whether environment-associated intraspecific morphological variation is less common in marine fishes or whether there has just been a lack of investigation. We used geometric morphometric analysis to quantify shape variation in two species of South African marine fish commonly harvested for human consumption, Pterogymnus laniarius (panga), and Argyrosomus inodorus (silver kob). Neither species exhibited significant sexual dimorphism, but both species exhibited significant intraspecific morphological variation. This variation appears consistent with patterns expected from variation along the benthic-pelagic feeding niche continuum.
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Rankin, R., and P. G. Rousseau. "Sanitary hot water consumption patterns in commercial and industrial sectors in South Africa: Impact on heating system design." Energy Conversion and Management 47, no. 6 (April 2006): 687–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2005.06.002.
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Kanayo, Ogujiuba, and Fadila Jumare . "Sustainable Development in Developing Countries: Case Studies of Sustainable Consumption and Production in South Africa and India." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 4, no. 9 (September 15, 2012): 489–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v4i9.350.
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The pursuit of development has had a major impact on the environment and on existing social structures. During the 1950s and 1960s, most nations were preoccupied with economic growth and energy consumption, which led to social and environmental issues being overlooked. Thus, traditional societies have been devastated and extreme environmental damage occurring such as pollution and inadequate water supply, transportation and sewer infrastructure problems amongst others. If environmental damage remains unchecked, the achievements of development and even essential ecosystems would be undermined. This paper reviewed the link between growth trends and sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thereafter, the impact of environmental degradation was discussed including strategies for sustainable energy production and consumption. These were based on evidence from South Africa and India and provided the benchmark for discussing ways in which energy production and consumption can take place sustainably. The paper notes that in developing and implementing strategies, emerging countries do not necessarily have to be western in their sustainable development policies. Rather, each country has to have sustainable development policies that are peculiar to its own circumstance. The paper recommends community participation and accountability of institutions as necessary for ensuring that social development is integrated into the economic and environmental elements of sustainable development.
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Ritchie, Michael J., Jacobus A. A. Engelbrecht, and M. J. (Thinus) Booysen. "Which Strategy Saves the Most Energy for Stratified Water Heaters?" Energies 14, no. 16 (August 9, 2021): 4859. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14164859.
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The operation of water heating uses a substantial amount of energy and is responsible for 30% of a household’s overall electricity consumption. Determining methods of reducing energy demand is crucial for countries such as South Africa, where energy supply is almost exclusively electrical, 88% of it is generated by coal, and energy deficits cause frequent blackouts. Decreasing the energy consumption of tanked water heaters can be achieved by reducing the standing losses and thermal energy of the hot water used. In this paper, we evaluate various energy-saving strategies that have commonly been used and determine which strategy is best. These strategies include optimising the heating schedule, lowering the set-point temperature, reducing the volume of hot water used, and installing additional thermal insulation. The results show that the best strategy was providing optimal control of the heating element, and savings of 16.3% were achieved. This study also determined that the magnitude of energy savings is heavily dependent on a household’s water usage intensity and seasonality.
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Matohlang Mohlotsane, Pascalina, Enoch Owusu-Sekyere, Henry Jordaan, Jonannes Barnard, and Leon van Rensburg. "Water Footprint Accounting Along the Wheat-Bread Value Chain: Implications for Sustainable and Productive Water Use Benchmarks." Water 10, no. 9 (August 31, 2018): 1167. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10091167.
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Efficient and wise management of freshwater resources in South Africa has become critical because of the alarming freshwater scarceness. The situation requires a thorough examination of how water is utilized across various departments that use water. This paper reports on an examination of the water footprint and economic water productivities of the wheat-bread value chain. The assessment methodology of the Water Footprint Network was employed. The findings reveal that 954.07 m3 and 1026.07 m3 of water are utilized in the production of a ton of wheat flour in Bainsvlei and Clovelly in South Africa. The average water footprint for wheat bread was 954.53 m3 per ton in Bainsvlei and 1026.53 m3 per ton in Clovelly. More than 99% of the water is used in producing the grain at the farm level. The processing stage of the value chain uses less than 1% of the total water footprint. About 80% of all the water utilised along the wheat bread value chain is attributed to blue water. The findings revealed a significant shift from green water consumption to higher blue water use, and this is a major concern for water users and stakeholders along the wheat-bread value chain, given that blue water is becoming scarce in South Africa. The groundwater contributes about 34% and 42% of the average total water footprint of wheat at the farm level in Clovelly and Bainsvlei, respectively, suggesting the need to have an idea of the contribution of groundwater in water footprint evaluation and water management decision of farmers. This insight will aid in minimizing irrigation water use and pressure on groundwater resources. A total of ZAR 4.27 is obtained for every m3 of water utilized along the wheat-bread value chain. Water footprint assessment has moved away from sole indicator assessment, as a deeper awareness of and insight into the productive use of water at different stages has become vital for policy. To make a correct judgment and to assess the efficient and wise use of water, there is a need for catchment- or region-specific water footprint benchmarks, given that water footprint estimates and economic water productivities vary from one geographical area to another.
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MEYER, J. P., and M. TSHIMANKINDA. "DOMESTIC HOT WATER CONSUMPTION IN SOUTH AFRICAN HOUSES FOR DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COMMUNITIES." International Journal of Energy Research 21, no. 7 (June 10, 1997): 667–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-114x(19970610)21:7<667::aid-er286>3.0.co;2-2.
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Jagals, P. "Stormwater runoff from typical developed and developing South African urban developments: definitely not for swimming." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 133–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0723.
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Public water in South Africa is protected from pollution from urban areas and industries through various forms of wastewater treatment and enforced by legislation and standards. However, hardly any standard or guideline exists for an acceptable quality for urban run-off such as stormwater. The microbiological quality of urban run-off from various large urban developments in the Free State Province, South Africa, has been investigated to establish the extent of faecal pollution. Sanitation of a low socio-economic urban residential development was generally limited, comprising mainly pit and bucket latrines. Sanitation of the other developments was typical of the larger more developed South African urban situation. It comprised well developed residential structures with full water-borne sewerage, fully serviced central business districts, developing residential areas with both waterborne sewerage and additional areas of informal settlement with limited facilities. Faecal coliforms (FC) and enterococci (FE) were used as generalised indicator organisms of faecal pollution together with sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria (SFB) and Streptococcus bovis (SB). Somatic (SC) and male specific coliphages (MSC) were used as indicators of organic and sewage pollution of the receiving water in the target areas. Samples were collected from perennial flow during the dry season and from stormwater run-off after thundershowers. Stormwater run-off from the large settlement with limited facilities as well as from the residential development with additional informal settlement reached FC counts of <6 logs/100mL, equivalent to many sewage effluents. Stormwater run-off from well developed urban structures reached FC of <4 logs/100mL, which exceeded safety margins in guidelines for recreational water quality. The results show that run-off from developing urban settlements, as well as developed urban structures, constitute a major source of pollution for a river catchment which is downstream used as a source of water for human consumption and recreation. The level of pollution dictates that stabilisation of urban surface run-off should be regarded as an equal priority to the enforced stabilisation of other wastewaters generated by human activities.
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Nthunya, Lebea, Sebabatso Maifadi, Bhekie Mamba, Arne Verliefde, and Sabelo Mhlanga. "Spectroscopic Determination of Water Salinity in Brackish Surface Water in Nandoni Dam, at Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa." Water 10, no. 8 (July 27, 2018): 990. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10080990.
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The problem of limited water supply in the Vhembe District (Limpopo Province, South Africa) is exacerbated by a preponderance of dissolved salts, which cause disagreeable taste and odour in the water as reported by the communities using this water for drinking. The water treatment plant that supplies the treated water to the communities in the District sources this raw water from the Nandoni Dam at the Luvuvhu river catchment. There are no scientific studies that have been reported in the literature that focused on determining the levels of water salinity from various water sources in the municipalities of the District. Water samples from various sites across the Nandoni Dam, a primary source of domestic water supply in the region, were collected through each season over a period of twelve months in order to ascertain the concentrations of dissolved salts in the dam. Onsite analyses of the water samples were conducted using the YSI ProDSS multimeter, while the laboratory water analyses were conducted using the spectroquant and atomic absorption spectrometers. Although salinity tests seem to indicate that the water sampled across most of the Nandoni Dam is brackish during all seasons of the year with the highest being 750 mg/L, water samples from the dam mid-outlet and the treatment plant are slightly below the World Health Organization (WHO) brackish water bracket of 500 mg/L with unfavourable taste for drinking. Results from this study indicate that the water sourced from the Nandoni Dam is not suitable for human consumption and therefore requires integrated water resource management, as well as robust and cost-effective water desalination treatment.
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Özdemir, Enver Doruk, Sheetal Dattatraya Marathe, Jan Tomaschek, Audrey Dobbins, and Ludger Eltrop. "Economic and environmental analysis of solar water heater utilisation in Gauteng Province, South Africa." Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 23, no. 2 (May 1, 2012): 2–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2012/v23i2a3157.
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This paper focuses on the energy economics and environmental impacts of solar water heaters (SWH) in the Gauteng Province and compares the results with other technology options for residential water heating with regard to the different income groups. The critical energy situation in South Africa and the highly coal dependent energy generation demonstrates the need to shift to a more sustainable way of living. The residential sector proves to be an optimal starting point to implement new technologies, especially for water heating. The residential hot water demand calculation shows that the annual demand in Gauteng is about 188 million cubic meters. In order to satisfy this demand, different technologies are investigated in this paper, where SWHs lie in focus. Due to the vast income inequality in Gauteng, and also in South Africa, it is obvious that there cannot be one single optimal solution suitable to all households. Therefore, this paper focuses on the differentiation of the residential sector into income groups to show the divergence in warm water demand and the applicability of alternative technologies. In order to analyse appropriate solutions for all income groups, low-cost alternatives are also analysed. The economic analysis shows that although SWHs have higher investment costs than conventional technologies, the payback periods are relatively short (between 3 and 4 years) for high and mid income groups. The payback periods will be even shorter when the planned electricity price tariff increase comes into effect. Furthermore, SWH utilisation has the additional effect of reducing the overall electricity demand up to 70% and greenhouse gas emissions significantly. In addition, SWHs are the most cost-effective water heating technology to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for mid and high income groups with negative abatement costs.It is concluded that the SWHs are the most suitable option to decrease fossil energy consumption and reduce the household’s expenditure for energy services, especially for mid and high income groups. For lower income groups the utilisation of solar energy can increase the access to energy services and living quality and, therewith, lessen the financial burden to meet their energy needs.
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Zvimba, John N., and Eustina V. Musvoto. "Modelling energy efficiency and generation potential in the South African wastewater services sector." Water Science and Technology 81, no. 5 (March 1, 2020): 876–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.157.
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Abstract About 55% of energy used in the South African water cycle is for wastewater treatment, with the bulk of this energy associated with aeration in biological processes. However, up to 15% of wastewater energy demand can be offset by energy generation from sludge (power and/or combined heat and power), while best practices adoption can deliver energy efficiency gains of between 5% and 25% in the water cycle. Advanced process modelling and simulation has been applied in this study as a tool to evaluate optimal process and aeration control strategies. This study further applied advanced modelling to investigate and predict the potential energy consumption and consumption cost pattern by the South African wastewater sector resulting from implementation of optimal process and aeration energy use reduction strategies in support of sustainable municipal wastewater management. Aeration energy consumption and cost savings of 9–45% were demonstrated to be achievable through implementation of energy conservation measures without compromising final effluent regulatory compliance. The study further provided significant potential future energy savings as high as 50% and 78% through implementation of simple and complex aeration energy conservation measures respectively. Generally, the model-predicted energy savings suggest that adoption of energy efficiency should be coupled with electricity generation from sludge in order to achieve maximum energy consumption and cost savings within the South African wastewater services sector.
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Mehta, Kedar, Mathias Ehrenwirth, Christoph Trinkl, Wilfried Zörner, and Rick Greenough. "The Energy Situation in Central Asia: A Comprehensive Energy Review Focusing on Rural Areas." Energies 14, no. 10 (May 13, 2021): 2805. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14102805.
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The northern part of the globe is dominated by industrialisation and is well-developed. For many years, the southern part of the world (South Asia, Africa etc.) has been a target of research concentrating on access to energy (mainly electricity) in rural regions. However, the Central Asian region has not been a focus of energy research compared to South East Asia and Africa. Despite plentiful domestically available energy resources, the energy supply in Central Asia is very unevenly distributed between urban and rural areas. Almost half of the total population of Central Asia lives in rural areas and there is a lack of access to modern energy services to meet primary needs. To analyse the energy situation (i.e., electricity, heating, hot water consumption, cooking, etc.) in rural Central Asia, this paper reviews residential energy consumption trends in rural Central Asian regions as compared to urban areas. Furthermore, the paper illustrates the potential of renewable energies in Central Asia. To perform the study, a qualitative comparative analysis was conducted based on a literature review, data, and statistical information. In summary, the presented article discusses the rural energy situation analytically and provides in-depth insights of Central Asian energy infrastructure.
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Duvenhage, D. Frank, Alan C. Brent, William H. L. Stafford, and S. Grobbelaar. "Water and CSP—Linking CSP Water Demand Models and National Hydrology Data to Sustainably Manage CSP Development and Water Resources in Arid Regions." Sustainability 12, no. 8 (April 21, 2020): 3373. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12083373.
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A systematic approach to evaluate Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plant fleet deployment and sustainable water resource use in arid regions is presented. An overview is given of previous work carried out. Once CSP development scenarios, suitable areas for development, and the water demand from CSP operations were evaluated, appropriate spatiotemporal CSP performance models were developed. The resulting consumptive patterns and the impact of variable resource availability on CSP plant operation are analysed. This evaluation considered the whole of South Africa, with focus on the areas identified as suitable for CSP, in order to study the impact on local water resources. It was found that the hydrological limitations imposed by variable water resources on CSP development are severe. The national annual theoretical net generation potential of wet-cooled Parabolic Trough decreased from 11,277 to 120 TWh, and that of wet-cooled Central Receiver decreased from 12,003 to 170 TWh. Dry cooled versions also experience severe limitations, but to a lesser extent—the national annual theoretical net generation potential of Parabolic Trough decreased from 11,038 to 512 TWh, and that of Central Receiver decreased from 11,824 to 566 TWh. Accordingly, policy guidelines are suggested for sustainable CSP development and water resource management within the context of current South African water use regulation.
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Mudau, Lutendo S., Murembiwa S. Mukhola, and Paul R. Hunter. "Systematic risk management approach of household drinking water from the source to point of use." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 7, no. 2 (March 29, 2017): 290–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.029.
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The water safety plan (WSP) approach is being widely adopted as a systematic approach to improving the safety of drinking water. However, to date, the approach has not been widely used for improving the safety of drinking water in those settings where people have to collect water away from their home. Most rural areas in South Africa still consume unsafe water despite WSP implementation and improved water sources provided by municipalities. This study used hazard analysis critical control point to assess drinking water used in households to determine systematic procedures, which could be used to control risks. The process includes assessment of risks associated with household water service level (availability, accessibility and potability) and risks of water contamination from the collection to point of consumption. Observations and questionnaires were used to collect data in households to systematically determine and identify risks of drinking water consumption. The results show intermittent water supply, access to unsafe water, while poor hygiene practices contribute to household water contamination. This approach could assist in identifying hazards as well as critical control points to reduce risks and improve management of drinking water safety in households.
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Ncube, Mthokozisi, and Akpofure E. Taigbenu. "Assessment of apparent losses due to meter inaccuracy using an alternative, validated methodology." Water Supply 19, no. 4 (October 29, 2018): 1212–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2018.178.
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Abstract Despite wide acceptance of the IWA water balance as the basis of managing water losses, experience suggests that there are difficulties with its application. For apparent losses assessment, the traditional approach of deriving consumption profiles and testing water meters exceeds the resources of many utilities. While a few studies have explored alternative methodologies, these have largely not been validated and are susceptible to reproducibility and interpretation difficulties. This paper introduces an improved comparative billing analysis method that combines data preparation techniques, clustering analysis and classical regression analysis on monthly billing data of a water utility in Johannesburg, South Africa. Using the method, an average estimate of apparent losses due to metering errors of 8.2% was found against the best-case scenario of 9.4% using field investigations and laboratory tests, which also measure meter under-registration that the proposed methodology does not cater for. The validated results were possible at a fraction of the cost and effort, while also providing better insight into the underlying consumption patterns. The results show that data-driven discovery processes are viable alternatives for improved assessment and management of water losses.