Relevant bibliographies by topics / Water discolouration

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Conference papers

Academic literature on the topic 'Water discolouration'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 10 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Water discolouration"

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Husband, S., K. E. Fish, I. Douterelo, and J. Boxall. "Linking discolouration modelling and biofilm behaviour within drinking water distribution systems." Water Supply 16, no. 4 (April 1, 2016): 942–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.045.

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High quality drinking water exits modern treatment works, yet water quality degradation such as discolouration continues to occur within drinking water distribution systems (DWDS). Discolouration is observed globally, suggesting a common process despite variations in source, treatment, disinfection and network configurations. The primary cause of discolouration has been identified as mobilisation of particulate material from pipe walls and the verified Prediction of Discolouration in Distribution Systems (PODDS) model uses measurable network hydraulics to simulate this response. In this paper the cohesive properties of discolouration material are explored and it is hypothesised that in simulating the turbidity response, the PODDS model is actually describing the development and cohesive strength behaviour of biofilms. Applying this concept can therefore facilitate a rapid and simple assessment of DWDS biofilm activity. A review of the findings from PODDS studies conducted internationally is presented, focussing on the macro or observable aspects of discolouration. These are compared and contrasted with associated biofilm studies which consider discolouration material at the micro-scale. Combining the results from these (past) studies to improve the understanding of interactions between microbial ecology and discolouration are discussed with a view to DWDS operational strategies that safeguard and optimise drinking water supply.
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Armand, Hooman, Ivan Stoianov, and Nigel Graham. "Impact of network sectorisation on water quality management." Journal of Hydroinformatics 20, no. 2 (October 11, 2017): 424–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2017.072.

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Abstract The sectorisation of water supply networks (WSNs) includes the permanent closure of valves in order to achieve a cost-effective leakage management and simplify pressure control. The impact of networks sectorisation, also known as district metered areas (DMAs), on water quality and discolouration has not been extensively studied and it remains unknown. In addition, hydraulic variables used in the literature for assessing the likelihood of potential discolouration are limited and inconclusive. This paper investigates a methodology to evaluate the impact of networks sectorisation (DMAs) on water quality and the likelihood of discolouration incidents. The methodology utilises a set of surrogate hydraulic variables and an analysis of the hydraulic condition in pipes with historic discolouration complaints. The proposed methodology has been applied to a large-scale WSN, with and without sectors, in order to assess the potential impact of DMAs on water quality. The results demonstrate that the sectorisation of WSN (DMAs) could compromise the overall water quality and increase the likelihood of discolouration incidents. The results of this study and the proposed surrogate hydraulic variables facilitate the formulation of optimisation problems for the re-design and control of WSNs with sectorised topologies.
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Boxall, J. B., P. J. Skipworth, and A. J. Saul. "Aggressive flushing for discolouration event mitigation in water distribution networks." Water Supply 3, no. 1-2 (March 1, 2003): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0101.

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Discolouration is one of the biggest causes of customer complaint associated with potable water. The flushing of systems has been widely identified as an appropriate pro-active means of removing material from distribution networks and hence controlling discolouration. Such flushing involves creating aggressive hydraulic forces within the network such that the materials that contribute to discolouration are mobilised and removed. Understanding of the causes and mechanisms leading to discolouration are poor. Previous work has been presented on the characterisation of material and particles collected at hydrants during flushing trials in the UK. From this data it was hypothesised that the materials causing discolouration originated from cohesive layers on pipe walls, and that once disturbed the material is maintained as a permanent suspension even under the most quiescent of networks conditions. The work presented in this paper attempts to validate the hypothesis that the discolouration materials originate from cohesive layers, and investigate the nature and variability of such layers within live distribution systems. The study involved the aggressive flushing of a long discrete length of cast iron pipe with known discolouration problems. The results showed a progressive generation of material over the length of the pipe, confirming that the material originated from a uniformly distributed cohesive source. This was followed by a sequence of flushing operations for the systematic cleaning of a complex network area, encompassing a mixture of pipe materials and ages. All measured turbidity traces showed exponential decay with time. Such exponential decay may be predicted by a model based on a change in layer strength with degree of erosion. Hydraulic forces appear to be a key factor governing the availability and mobilisation of material. Iron is the dominant material mobilised from all the pipes. There is no direct trend between the amount or the composition of the material mobilised from the different pipes.
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Sharpe, Rebecca L., Catherine A. Biggs, and Joby B. Boxall. "Hydraulic conditioning to manage potable water discolouration." Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 172, no. 1 (February 2019): 3–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jwama.16.00038.

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Seth, A., R. Bachmann, J. Boxall, A. Saul, and R. Edyvean. "Characterisation of materials causing discolouration in potable water systems." Water Science and Technology 49, no. 2 (January 1, 2004): 27–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2004.0080.

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Discoloured water is one of the main causes of customer complaints received by UK water suppliers. Flushing is recognised as a means of preventing red water events by mobilising material with the potential to cause discolouration. The understanding of the mechanisms and materials causing discolouration is limited. It is therefore necessary to characterise the materials mobilised by flushing, _which are responsible for discolouration. The University of Sheffield and two UK water companies embarked on an in-depth programme of monitoring mains flushing. The programme involves collecting discrete samples during flushing of pipes of differing materials, diameters, age, source water and hydraulic regime. The results show iron to be the dominant material mobilised irrespective of pipe material. All samples indicate a direct correlation between turbidity, iron and manganese, and to a lesser extent with metals lead, copper, aluminium and zinc. Concentration of metals mobilised is independent of pipe material, diameter or age.
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Furnass, W. R., R. P. Collins, P. S. Husband, R. L. Sharpe, S. R. Mounce, and J. B. Boxall. "Modelling both the continual erosion and regeneration of discolouration material in drinking water distribution systems." Water Supply 14, no. 1 (September 13, 2013): 81–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.176.

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The erosion of the cohesive layers of particulate matter that causes discolouration in water distribution system mains has previously been modelled using the Prediction of Discolouration in Distribution Systems (PODDS) model. When first proposed, PODDS featured an unvalidated means by which material regeneration on pipe walls could be simulated. Field and laboratory studies of material regeneration have yielded data that suggest that the PODDS formulations incorrectly model these processes. A new model is proposed to overcome this shortcoming. It tracks the relative amount of discolouration material that is bound to the pipe wall over time at each of a number of shear strengths. The model formulations and a mass transport model have been encoded as software, which has been used to verify the model's constructs and undertake sensitivity analyses. The new formulations for regeneration are conceptually consistent with field and laboratory observed data and have potential value in the proactive management of water distribution systems, such as evaluating change in discolouration risk and planning timely interventions.
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Poças, Ana, André Miranda, João Paiva, M. J. Benoliel, Jan Vreeburg, and José Menaia. "Hydrogel floc nature and biogenic constituents of drinking water discolouration deposits." Water Supply 13, no. 6 (September 12, 2013): 1486–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.157.

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Loose deposits (LD) develop and accumulate in drinking water distribution systems' (DWDS) pipes and often lead to discolouration incidents, which are a major reason for customers' complaints. In addition, LD may accumulate contaminants, while discolouration may be accompanied by degradation of the water's microbiological quality. Along with iron oxides, organic compounds are well established as predominant constituents of LD. Even so, the composition and role of the latter remain unknown. Since microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are components of iron-rich flocs from many freshwater environments, the presence of EPS in LD was investigated. This was confirmed by the systematic occurrence of polysaccharides and proteins in LD samples. In addition, microscopic observations and measurements of LD water contents showed that, like their freshwater counterparts, LD have a hydrogel floc nature and fractal morphology. By providing insights on LD origin and behaviour, these findings may be important for the understanding of DWDS water discolouration phenomena.
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Vreeburg, J. H. G., P. G. Schaap, and J. C. van Dijk. "Particles in the drinking water system: from source to discolouration." Water Supply 4, no. 5-6 (December 1, 2004): 431–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2004.0135.

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Water discolouration in networks results from increased turbidity due to high levels of suspended particles. Hydraulic incidents such as pipe burst or hydrant use impose extra shear stresses on sediment layers in the network, leading to particle resuspension. The mass balance over a network or parts of the network may be used to analyse the different sources and accumulation processes; this article focuses on the contribution of the “mass in” from the pumping station as particles. Three analysis methods have been developed within the joint research program of the Dutch water companies (BTO-program): the continuous monitoring of turbidity, the Mass Settling Potential Method and the Resuspension Potential Method. The continuous monitoring of turbidity and particle counting enable an analysis of the relative contribution of sources for particles, e.g. corrosion of cast iron. The Mass Settling Potential and Resuspension Potential methods add insight into actual sediment load and actual discolouration risk. Further development of these methods will enhance knowledge of the origin and fate of particles in a network, enabling the formulation of effective measures against discolouration and associated water quality problems.
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McClymont, Kent, Ed Keedwell, Dragan Savić, and Mark Randall-Smith. "A general multi-objective hyper-heuristic for water distribution network design with discolouration risk." Journal of Hydroinformatics 15, no. 3 (October 25, 2012): 700–716. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2012.022.

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The optimisation of water distribution networks (WDNs) by evolutionary algorithms has gained much coverage in the literature since it was first proposed in the early 1990s. Despite being well studied, the problem and objectives continue to evolve as demands on water companies change. Motivated by the increased focus on reducing the risk of discolouration, this study examines a three objective version of the WDN design problem which takes into account cost, head excess and discolouration risk. Using this formulation, this paper presents a method for producing optimised network designs aimed at reducing discolouration risk in the network design phase and thus reducing the associated long-term maintenance and operational burdens of the system. This paper discusses the use of a discolouration risk model and, using this model, the optimisation of network design, specifically pipe diameters, to produce a range of high quality self-cleaning networks. The network designs are optimised using the Markov-chain hyper-heuristic (MCHH), a new multi-objective online selective hyper-heuristic. The MCHH is incorporated in to the known NSGA-II and SPEA2 and supplied with a range of heuristics tailored for use on the WDN design problem. The results demonstrate an improvement in performance obtained over the original algorithms.
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Vreeburg, Ir J. H. G., and Dr J. B. Boxall. "Discolouration in potable water distribution systems: A review." Water Research 41, no. 3 (February 2007): 519–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.09.028.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Water discolouration"

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Mitchell, Gordon. "Aspects of solute movement in the British uplands." Thesis, University of Leeds, 1991. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/476/.

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The aim of this research is to determine the process by which runoff draining parts of the UK uplands becomes discoloured. Recent increases in colour are perceived as a problem due to the frequency with which EC surface water directives are breached, to the increased cost of meeting standards, to an increase in consumer complaints, and due to the possible deleterious health effects of consuming coloured potable water. The work was conducted over the last four years, largely in the Upper Burn and Nidd valleys, north Yorkshire, and at the University of Leeds. Existing knowledge on the chemical nature and environmental genesis of coloured water is reviewed, and related to the chemical nature of coloured waters examined in this study. Analysis of water quality archives and direct monitoring of selected catchments was conducted enabling the spatial and temporal distribution of coloured waters to be determined. A tentative process theory was produced, and tested by controlled laboratory investigations. Coloured runoff is derived from Winter Hill soil, raw acid oligo-fibrous peat, and is most intense from areas with slopes < 5% and high drainage densities. The seasonal pattern of colour is highly regular, and is a product of rainfall and soil moisture deficit. Colour is strongly associated with discharge, and demonstrates the operation of a catchment flushing mechanism. Runoff is discoloured in a three phase process; colour production, solubilisation and removal. Colour is a product of organic decomposition, dependent upon microbiological activity, moisture deficit, temperature and peat structure. Solubilisation of colour is dependent upon solution pH, temperature, the chemical structure of organic molecules and the availability of iron. The removal of decomposition products, as colour, is strongly dependent on the moisture status of peat, and its ability to rewet after drying. The implications of these findings for future colour levels and for catchment and catchwater management are discussed.
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Scheepers, Gerhardus C. "Liquid water flow and discolouration of wood during kiln drying /." Link to the online version, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10019/1189.

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Husband, Paul Stewart. "Discolouration in water distribution systems : understanding, modelling and practical applications." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.531117.

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Scheepers, G. C. "Liquid water flow and discolouration of wood during kiln drying." Thesis, Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/1464.

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Thesis (PhD (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006.
The discolouration of South African softwood during kiln drying can reduce the value of furniture grade lumber. Thermal discolouration of wood, as found due to heat treatment, produces a homogeneously browner colour in wood than is normally expected. This type of discolouration is attributed to reactions of the macromolecules present in wood and is found in both hard- and softwoods. Yellow stain and kiln brown stain can severely alter the colour of the outer few millimeters of a wooden board and is attributed to the reaction of water-soluble sugars and nitrogenous compounds, present in the wood sap, after deposition at the wood surface due to liquid or capillary water flow during drying. A discussion of the mechanism of discolouration due to yellow stain and kiln brown stain would be incomplete without a good understanding of the liquid flow of water during drying above fibre saturation point. This thesis brings the two concepts of liquid water flow and discolouration in context and is presented in four chapters: • an introduction motivating the aims of the investigation (Chapter 1); • a literature review of factors which may influence discolouration and liquid water flow during drying (Chapter 2); • original manuscripts describing the discolouration of South African softwood and liquid water flow in hard- and softwood (Chapter 3); and • a final conclusion that links up the results from the investigations (Chapter 4). The investigations into the occurrence of yellow stain and kiln brown stain showed that the intensity of these types of discolouration was influenced by geographical origin (and/or climate), tree species, planing depth of dried lumber, and kiln schedule parameters like dry- and wet bulb temperature and time. The characteristic discolouration pattern of yellow stain and kiln brown stain indicated that this stain type was related to the wetline phenomenon that is found during the liquid water flow phase of drying wet wood. Thermal discolouration, on the other hand, occurred homogeneously throughout the volume of lumber and is, therefore, not related to free water flow, but to chemical changes of the macromolecules in wood. The results of the liquid water flow investigations support the invasion percolation theory of drying that states that the largest meniscus will retract into a drying liquid-filled capillary network until it is not the largest meniscus anymore. Fluctuations in the rate of moisture loss from the cores of wood pieces above fibre saturation point were also found. The pattern of fluctuation differed appreciably between Betula verrucosa and Pinus radiata. In both cases, the start of the last phase in rate of moisture loss from the core coincided with a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the drying wood piece. This behaviour is explained by the hypothesis that distinct capillary size classes are emptied of free water, in order, from large to small. As smaller capillaries are emptied, the capillary forces become greater, to the point where the forces are great enough to cause permanent or temporary deformation of the remaining water-filled capillaries. Classification and regression tree analysis was a useful statistical technique to analyse a large multivariate dataset. The importance of kiln schedule temperatures and planing depth to control yellow stain and kiln brown stain was clearly pointed out by the technique, which can help to simplify the control of colour quality during the industrial processing of wood.
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Patrick, M. J. L. "Discolouration and pipe-water interface studies : an examination of corrosion, deposition and water quality in potable water distribution pipelines." Thesis, University of Hertfordshire, 1989. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.276552.

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Cook, Dominic. "Field investigation of discolouration material accumulation rates in live drinking water distribution systems." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2007. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/10308/.

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Discolouration is the biggest cause of aesthetic customer contacts in the water industry. This project was designed to develop new insight and understanding into discolouration, by investigating the impact ofdifferent factors on discolouration material accumulation rates and the effectiveness of traditionaJly used mains cleaning and rehabilitation methods, through detailed studies of live distribution systems. Analysis ofdiscolouration customer contacts and burst incidents covering a five year period for two water companies and pipe asset data base for a water company's entire region, at the District Meter Area (DMA) level, shows little correlation between the number ofdiscolouration events and pipe properties, indicating complex inter relationships between a number offactors. Discolouration accumulation rates were investigated through repeat full zonal flushing in two DMAs. Discolouration material was seen to accumulate at the same rate in all areas ofthe networks, as a factor ofwater quality, until equilibrium was reached between accumulation and erosion rates. This equilibrium was as a factor ofdaily conditioning shear stress, whereby pipes affected by a low daily conditioning shear stress continued to accumulate material longer than pipes with a higher daily conditioning shear stress and thicker layers ofdiscolouration material were fonned. Long tenn turbidity monitoring in five DMAs has showed that the amplitude ofa daily turbidity cycle, based on resuspension and corrosion processes, can be used to assess the effectiveness of network rehabilitation. A greater improvement in the reduction ofdiscolouration potential was seen in the full zonal flush DMAs, than in DMAs that were rehabilitated under the Distribution Operation and Maintenance Strategy (DOMS), at far greater cost. Using the principles of change in shear the methodology for a simple modelling tool was designed and field tested to predict the discolouration response to valve movements, to enable valve operations to be managed to reduce discolouration risk.
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Furnass, William R. "Modelling both the continual accumulation and erosion of discolouration material in drinking water distribution systems." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2015. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/10645/.

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Discolouration material has previously been shown to accumulate continually and ubiquitously as cohesive layers in all drinking water distribution network pipes. Discolouration risk cannot therefore be eliminated by one-off strategies such as pipe renewal or invasive cleaning. However maintenance programmes of regular controlled flow increases have potential for long-term risk management. To facilitate the design and optimisation of these programmes, a new discolouration model is proposed. This combines a novel sub-model of how the shear strength profile of material layers changes due to accumulation with a material erosion sub-model that has similar behaviour to the validated shear-stress-dependant PODDS erosion model. The accumulation sub-model reflects the observation that material with shear strengths exceeding the imposed shear stress accumulates at a rate invariant to this hydraulic force. These differing behaviours are facilitated by modelling how the amount of wall-bound material varies over time for distinct shear strength bands. This results in a model state that is more complex and powerful than PODDS but the new model has fewer parameters. The validity of the model was tested by calibrating model instances of a pipe rig experiment, four distribution main flushes and three long-term trunk main monitoring programmes using a verified software implementation of the model. The empirical model can be automatically calibrated using swarm optimisation (as has been demonstrated) but in the one case where its predictive power was tested it was found to be limited. However, the model's present value is as a framework for furthering the understanding of erosion and regeneration and, as more accurate and complete datasets become available, refinements could result in a tool for medium to long-term network management, including the design of flow conditioning programmes. The model is now implemented in commercial network modelling software.
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O'Brien, Helen Elizabeth. "The role of blanket peat moorland management in the generation and amelioration of discolouration of surface water supplies." Thesis, Nottingham Trent University, 2009. http://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/174/.

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Discolouration of surface waters in upland catchments (with associated costs of water treatment and resources) has increased particularly since the severe droughts in the 1970s and mid 1990s. Such discolouration is a major concern for many water companies whose catchment areas include upland moorland, particularly those areas located on deep blanket peat soils. The principal aim of this study was to evaluate the role of catchment management in the production of discoloured surface runoff and DOC flux from catchments used as gathering grounds for public water supply. The investigation focused on blanket peat moorlands in the Ladybower catchment from which water is treated at Bamford Treatment Works. Whilst other workers have considered management techniques for water colour amelioration at laboratory and plot scale, no previous study had evaluated the impact of these approaches at a catchment scale with a sufficient degree of experimental control. Baseline relationships between meteorological inputs and hydrological responses were established during a calibration period prior to intervention in management. Six catchments were instrumented and the relationships between water discolouration and hydrological and land management characteristics were identified. Suitable pairings of catchments were determined with similar characteristics. One catchment was then treated to a management practice, whilst the management on another was not affected. It was then possible to assess the impact of management on the treated catchment in comparison with the untreated catchment. Following controlled intervention in management on three of the catchments (gullies blocked, cessation of burning and removal of grazing), all study sites were monitored for a further three years to identify and quantify changes in hydrological response, water discolouration and DOC flux and predict responses post-management intervention. The results found that water colour and DOC flux increased on all catchments irrespective of changes in land management, although in the final year there was some recovery. On the paired control sites, where management was not manipulated and similar meteorological conditions prevailed; there were no statistically significant changes from that predicted for true colour and runoff. On the manipulated catchments there were significant changes from that predicted by the control which suggests that management practices contributed to changes on these catchments. Whilst the true colour increased at the gully-blocked site (p = 0.09), the observed colour was lower than predicted on the catchments where burning had ceased (p = 0.891) and grazing was removed (p<0.01). On all catchments there was a reduction in runoff and DOC flux from that predicted; significant at the gully-blocked catchment and where grazing was removed (p<0.01), but where burning ceased the change was only weakly significant (p = 0.085) or not significant (p = 0.4) respectively. Although the results have identified changes in hydrological conditions and colour/DOC response following the manipulation of practices, there is an on-going need for investigation of longer term effects of such interventions, to identify sustainable catchment management practices and to ameliorate further deterioration of surface water quality.
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Books on the topic "Water discolouration"

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Discolouration in drinking water systems: The role of particles clarified. London: IWA Publishing, 2010.

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Vreeburg, Jan. Discolouration in Drinking Water Systems. IWA Publishing, 2010.

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Pillans, Laurie Arthur. The Painter's Methods and Materials: The Handling of Pigments in Oil, Tempera, Water-Colour and in Mural Painting, the Preparation of Grounds and ... of Discolouration - With Many Illustrations. White Press, 2018.

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Conference papers on the topic "Water discolouration"

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Collingbourne, J., and M. Randall-Smith. "Implementation of an Integrated Discolouration Management Strategy." In Water: Process Control and Automation. Engineering for the Water Industry. Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/ic.2015.0011.

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Boxall, J. B., A. J. Saul, J. D. Gunstead, and N. Dewis. "Regeneration of Discolouration in Distribution Systems." In World Water and Environmental Resources Congress 2003. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/40685(2003)132.

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Husband, S., J. B. Boxall, and R. Williams. "Discolouration Risk Management for Trunk Mains." In 12th Annual Conference on Water Distribution Systems Analysis (WDSA). Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41203(425)50.

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Boxall, J. B., and N. Dewis. "Identification of Discolouration Risk Through Simplified Modelling." In World Water and Environmental Resources Congress 2005. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/40792(173)26.

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van Thienen, Peter, Roberto Floris, Jan Vreeburg, and Mirjam Blokker. "Lab Experiments on Turbulent Processes Causing Discolouration Potential." In World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2011. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41173(414)253.

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Aisopou, Angeliki, Ivan Stoianov, and Nigel Graham. "Modelling Discolouration in WDS Caused by Hydraulic Transient Events." In 12th Annual Conference on Water Distribution Systems Analysis (WDSA). Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41203(425)49.

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Vreeburg, J. H. G., and M. Z. Tankerville. "Build-Up of Discolouration Potential in Networks As Function of Treatment Performance." In World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2011. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41173(414)25.

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Husband, Stewart, Yiying Xin, and Joby B. Boxall. "Long Term Asset Condition and Discolouration Modelling in Water Distribution Systems with Epanet MSX." In World Environmental And Water Resources Congress 2012. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784412312.317.

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Sharpe, R. L., C. J. Smith, J. B. Boxall, and C. A. Biggs. "Pilot Scale Laboratory Investigations into the Impact of Steady State Conditioning Flow on Potable Water Discolouration." In 12th Annual Conference on Water Distribution Systems Analysis (WDSA). Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41203(425)47.

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