Journal articles: 'Water reuse, South Africa'

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Odendaal, Peter E. "Recent Advances in Water Reuse Research in South Africa." Water Science and Technology 23, no. 10-12 (May 1, 1991): 2061–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0662.

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Due to limited water resources, water reuse is pursued as a major component of an overall strategy to optimise water use in South Africa. Progress in South African water reuse research, mainly since 1985, is reviewed. In the field of potable reuse research, the topics addressed are epidemiological studies, activated carbon, the microbiology of reclaimed water, bioassaying, and reverse osmosis. Information is provided on the scale of direct agricultural and industrial reuse of purified sewage effluents. Indirect reuse is steadily increasing and research which traditionally addressed direct potable reuse is becoming of equal relevance to indirect reuse. In addition, research becomes necessary on problems which relate specifically to indirect reuse, such as : treatment of algal waters, variation of raw water quality, upgrading of sewage effluent quality, organohalogens, and salination problems. Recent advances in research on internal water reuse by industry focused in particular on membranes and salt removal technology. Cases mentioned are textile dyehouse, scouring, bleaching and mercerising processes; bottle washing; wool scouring; water works wash water; and power station cooling.

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Adewumi, J. R., A. A. Ilemobade, and J. E. van Zyl. "Minimizing risks in wastewater reuse: proposed operational principles and guidelines for South Africa." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 2, no. 4 (December 1, 2012): 227–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2012.038.

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Treated wastewater represents a significant potential source of reclaimed water for some beneficial reuses. However, public concern over the risks/health-related hazards of wastewater reuse has limited the general acceptability of reuse systems in many countries. It is important to manage the operation of recycled water systems in such a way that it will not adversely affect public health and the environment. Management of recycled water involves process control and compliance monitoring. This paper presents proposed unit process monitoring guidelines to classify the performances of treatment units according to the pollutant removal efficiencies and frequency of sampling to test for effluent quality suitable for reuse. The paper also highlights the procedure for proper inspection of treatment facilities to ensure optimum performances. It proposes minimum quality requirements for different reuse activities in South Africa such as domestic (toilet flushing, watering private gardens), irrigation (crops, landscape, public parks and golf courses, cemeteries), industrial (system cooling and process water) and other activities (construction works, street cleaning, fire protection, groundwater recharge). By employing the wastewater treatment monitoring and sampling procedures proposed in this paper, health-related hazards can be minimized while public confidence in reuse schemes will be enhanced.

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Swana, Umhle U., Usisipho Feleni, Tshepo J. Malefetse, Bhekie B. Mamba, Peter Schmitz, and Thabo T. I. Nkambule. "The status and quantification of de facto water reuse in South Africa – a review." Water Practice and Technology 15, no. 2 (March 19, 2020): 225–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.021.

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Abstract The practice of discharging insufficiently treated wastewater to surface water used for potable use (de facto reuse) is common globally. Although de facto reuse provides a sustainable supply of water, it also affects the environment and human health negatively because the inadequately treated effluents contain contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Therefore, there is a need to determine the extent of de facto reuse in water bodies of South Africa (SA) and thus assess the potential environmental and health risks associated with the reuse of insufficiently treated wastewater in the country. This review summarizes the status of de facto reuse in SA and its negative impact on human health and the environment. Furthermore, the review provides background information on water reuse and as well as the current treatment technologies available in the country for potable water reuse. The use of a geographic information system (GIS) model in combination with caffeine (a wastewater tracer that is abundant in SA surface water systems) for the quantification of de facto reuse is also cited. Such methods, it is envisaged, will enable water management authorities to make well informed decisions regarding water quality issues in SA.

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Burgess, Jo, Melissa Meeker, Julie Minton, and Mark O'Donohue. "International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 1, no. 5 (2015): 563–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ew00165j.

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Buckley, C. A., C. J. Brouckaert, and G. E. Rencken. "Waste water reuse, the South African experience." Water Science and Technology 41, no. 10-11 (May 1, 2000): 157–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2000.0631.

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Membrane processes have recently been applied much more extensively by South African industry. A number of the older plants have suffered from fouling problems, sometimes brought on by changes in the feed stream. Newer installations are tending to apply the techniques of Cleaner Production to more closely integrate the membrane process into the manufacturing process and to reduce the size of the installation. There has been a trend to investigate methods of using the brine in place of discharging it to the environment. Membrane related research is still very active and a range of current initiatives is provided.

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Sadr, Seyed M. K., Isaiah Mashamaite, Devendra Saroj, Sabeha Ouki, and Adesola Ilemobade. "Membrane assisted technology appraisal for water reuse applications in South Africa." Urban Water Journal 13, no. 5 (January 14, 2015): 536–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1573062x.2014.994008.

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Adewumi, J. R., A. A. Ilemobade, and J. E. van Zyl. "Decision support for the planning of integrated wastewater reuse projects in South Africa." Water Supply 10, no. 2 (April 1, 2010): 251–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2010.231.

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Wastewater reuse is an attractive option for supplementing available water supplies. Benefits of reuse include pollution abatement due to the reduction of effluent discharge to surface water bodies, the decrease in the use of freshwaters from sensitive ecosystems, replenishment of soil nutrients in agriculture, enhancement of groundwater recharge and delay in the future expansion of water supply infrastructure. This paper presents ongoing research in developing and testing of a decision support system (DSS) for assessing the feasibility of implementing wastewater reuse projects in South Africa. The DSS employs multi-criteria qualitative assessment across technical, environmental, social, institution and water resources. The database of the DSS contains 33 wastewater treatment unit processes with known information on performance, costs and qualitative criteria obtained from literature. The knowledge base on the other hand, consists of a set of rules for combining the treatment units to form treatment trains and contains information on maximum allowable values for different water quality parameters for five end users. The weighted average method was used to aggregate scores obtained from the assessment of the different criteria to generate an indicative value that could form the basis for decision making. Testing of the DSS was applied to the Parow wastewater treatment plant in Cape Town. Results of the analysis shows that only the water resources evaluation score (1.0) is considered excellent for reuse implementation while the institutional evaluation score is weak (0.35) in guaranteeing success. Social evaluation and treatment train technical/environmental have qualitative evaluation scores of 0.76. The desirable score for all the criteria is 1.0 in order to facilitate the successful implementation of any reuse project. The quality of treated effluent from the proposed treatment trains meets the quality requirement in most of the pollutant determined except total phosphorus (2.88). The value is acceptable if the use of the effluent is limited to irrigation. If decision makers give adequate attention to the criteria highlighted in this model, success of a reuse project in South Africa can be better enhanced.

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Bakare, B. F., S. Mtsweni, and S. Rathilal. "A pilot study into public attitudes and perceptions towards greywater reuse in a low cost housing development in Durban, South Africa." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 6, no. 2 (October 21, 2015): 345–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2015.076.

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The benefits of greywater reuse have been identified to include the protection of water resources, recovery of nutrients for agriculture, savings in fresh water usage, reduction in volumes of wastewater discharged into wastewater treatment works, groundwater recharge and sustainable water resource management. An understanding of public attitude and perceptions towards the reuse of greywater will help to facilitate a positive reaction to the promotion of such concepts. The study involved administering of structured questionnaires to residents within the community through field visits. The questionnaire addressed issues related to attitudes towards the reuse of greywater, perceived advantages related to the reuse of greywater and concerns related to public health issues regarding the reuse of greywater. A total number of 346 questionnaires were administered and respondents were aged from less than 19 to over 60 years. Of the respondents, 55% were female and 45% male. The findings revealed a complex and shifting relationship between attitudes towards and perception of the reuse of greywater. This paper thus presents the findings and assesses certain aspects of greywater reuse.

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Busari, Isiaka Toyin, Aidan Senzanje, Alfred O. Odindo, and Chris A. Buckley. "The impact of irrigation water management techniques on the performance of rice using treated wastewater reuse in Durban, South Africa." Water Supply 19, no. 6 (February 13, 2019): 1604–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2019.031.

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Abstract The need to cultivate effluent-irrigated rice is paramount and synonymous with treated wastewater reuse, recycling and water resources management. A trial in a peri-urban set-up with a low-cost decentralized wastewater treatment system (DEWATS) was carried out in the 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons to assess the effect of irrigation water reuse management techniques on the yield and water productivity of rice. It was hypothesized that anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) irrigation water management does not have an effect on the yield of peri-urban grown rice. The impacts of irrigation water management techniques were very significant (P < 0.001) on the number of irrigation events, amount of irrigation and daily water balance. The impact was not significant (P > 0.05) on the tiller numbers per plant; it was however significant (P < 0.05) on the panicle numbers per plant. The effects were not significant (P > 0.05) on the plant height but significant (P < 0.05) on the yield rice for both trials. The effect was also significant (P < 0.05) on water productivity. The result proved that the hypothesis be rejected. It could be concluded that significant potential exists for applying wastewater reuse for non-drinking applications such as irrigation.

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Reynders, Cornelius Chris, Harmony Musiyarira, and Prvoslav Marjanovic. "The Value of Decentralisation in Wastewater Management: Gauteng Province Case Study, South Africa." Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People 1, no. 2 (July 21, 2012): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v1i2.14.

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In a semi-arid water scarce country like South Africa, the efficient use of limited water resources and measures to extend the service value of these resources is a prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. The conventional supply-sided management approach to water supply causes increased wastewater generation with accompanied increased pollution loads requiring higher levels of mitigation environmental pollution. Where disposal of wastewater treatment effluent takes place in rivers and natural water bodies, the lack of adequate natural compensating capacity of such water bodies typically result in severe ecological damage of the aquatic environment. With a shift of emphasis to a sustainable demand side management approach (as opposed to a supply side one), the avoidance of water wastage and high wastewater generation represents both resource conservation and environmental protection friendly approaches and contribute to overall sustainability. The integrated nature of water supply and wastewater management systems require an approach that considers these systems holistically. A new paradigm for water management is therefore needed to ensure that the issues of waste disposal and pollution are dealt with in a sustainable manner taking into account the emerging objectives of modern society for resource conservation and environmental protection.A balance therefore has to be found between the uses of additional fresh water resources as a means of satisfying en ever increasing water demand on the one hand and alternative unconventional resource exploration and employment, without the risk of depletion of natural available fresh water resource flow, irreversible harm to the environment and social and economic constraints.This paper explores wastewater and grey water reuse as unconventional resources in a qualitative manner within this balancing equation. It further proposes a methodology for deriving monetary indicator values for wastewater reuse by internalising negative environmental impacts. This is achieved through application of Lagrangian optimisation of the treatment plant production function (output distance function) for deriving marginal prices of contaminant removal and resulting avoided pollution.

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Lahnsteiner, J., P. van Rensburg, and J. Esterhuizen. "Direct potable reuse – a feasible water management option." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 8, no. 1 (February 9, 2017): 14–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2017.172.

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Abstract Direct potable reuse (DPR) can be more economic than indirect potable reuse as no environmental buffer is needed and conveyance and blending of the purified water with other potable sources is basically less expensive. Long-term experience in Windhoek (48 years) shows that treated domestic sewage can be safely and cost-efficiently utilized for potable reclamation (0.72 €/m3). A multiple barrier strategy is employed in order to attain the highest possible safety levels. There are three types of barriers: non-treatment, treatment and operational barriers. In recent years, new DPR schemes have been implemented in South Africa and in the USA, and the major difference between all the new reclamation processes and the Windhoek New Goreangab water reclamation plant lies in the employment of desalination process units. This topic and other issues, such as the use of ozone and biological activated carbon filtration, are addressed. Reclamation process optimization (increase in sustainability) and the attainment of greater public acceptance are the major challenges facing the promotion of DPR, which should become a common and widely used water management option within the next 5–10 years.

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Bakare, B. F., S. Mtsweni, and S. Rathilal. "Pilot study of a horizontal roughing filtration system treating greywater generated from a peri-urban community in Durban, South Africa." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 9, no. 3 (February 12, 2019): 330–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2019.055.

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Abstract There is a growing pressure on the available freshwater resources in South Africa and many other countries around the world. This has led to a large scale of interest in the application of water reclamation and reuse of wastewater as alternative water supply sources. This is becoming critical to sustain development and economic growth in the southern Africa region. This study investigated the performance of a horizontal roughing filtration system treating greywater generated from a peri-urban settlement in Durban, South Africa. The horizontal roughing filtration system consists of three compartments containing different sizes of gravels that serve as the filter media. The horizontal roughing filter was operated at a filtration rate of 0.3 m/hr for 90 days. The results indicated that at this low filtration rate, effective reduction in turbidity, conductivity, chemical oxygen demand and total solids can be achieved. Overall average removal efficiencies of 90% turbidity, 70% chemical oxygen demand, 86% conductivity, and 84% total solids were obtained for the entire duration of operation of the horizontal roughing filtration system. Thus, it was concluded that the horizontal roughing filtration system is suitable for the treatment of greywater for non-potable reuse applications although further investigation needs to be conducted for the microbial removal during the treatment.

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Bakare, B. F., S. Mtsweni, and S. Rathilal. "Characteristics of greywater from different sources within households in a community in Durban, South Africa." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 7, no. 4 (November 14, 2016): 520–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2016.092.

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The reuse of greywater is steadily gaining importance in South Africa. Greywater contains pollutants that could have adverse effects on the environment and public health if the water is not treated before reuse. Successful implementation of any greywater treatment process depends largely on its characteristics in terms of the pollutant strength. This study investigated the physico-chemical characteristics of greywater from different sources within 75 households in a community in Durban, South Africa. The study was undertaken to create an understanding of greywater quality from different sources within and between households. Greywater samples were collected from the kitchen, laundry and bathing facilities within each of the households. The samples were analysed for: pH, conductivity, turbidity, total solids, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen demand (BOD). There was a significant difference in the parameters analysed between the greywater from the kitchen compared with the greywater from the bathtub/shower and laundry. It was also observed that the characteristics of greywater from the different households varied considerably. The characteristics of the greywater obtained in this study suggest that the greywater generated cannot be easily treatable using biological treatment processes and/or technologies due to the very low mean BOD : COD ratio (<0.5).

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Snyman, H. G., J. S. Terblanche, and J. L. van der Westhuizen. "Management of land disposal and agricultural reuse of sewage sludge within the framework of the current South African guidelines." Water Science and Technology 42, no. 9 (November 1, 2000): 13–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2000.0158.

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Sacrificial land disposal and reuse in the agricultural sector are popular methods for disposing of excess sewage sludge in South Africa. These practices had to comply with the “Guide: Permissible Utilisation and Disposal of Sewage Sludge” (1991). These sludge guidelines were revised in 1997 with considerable amendments to the heavy metal loading and usage restrictions. The new guidelines are perceived to be overly restrictive, specifically with regards to some of the metal standards for sludge intended for unrestrictive use. The paper discusses the new South African sludge guidelines and the extent of compliance. Sludge data of 77 works is presented. The data indicates that not one of the wastewater treatment works could comply to the Cu (50.5 mg/kgdry), Pb (50.5 mg/kgdry) or Zn (353.5 mg/kgdry) in sludge intended for unrestrictive use. A case study is presented of a wastewater treatment works generating 2 tdry sludge/d. Under the new guidelines, the sludge needs to be applied to 515 ha/y in stead of 77 ha/y under the 1991 sludge guidelines. The process to revisit the 1997 sludge guidelines is discussed.

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Turpie, D. W. F., C. J. Steenkamp, and R. B. Townsend. "Industrial Application of Formed-in-Place Membrane Ultrafiltration and Automated Membrane-Forming in the Treatment and Recycle of Rinse-Water during the Scouring of Raw Wool." Water Science and Technology 25, no. 10 (May 1, 1992): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0242.

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Fresh water consumption in the scouring of raw wool at a Mill in South Africa has been dramatically reduced by a combination of two factors, namely the purification and recycling of some of the wash water for reuse during rinsing, and the recycle of water from the firm's biological degradation ponds for use in the earlier stages of wool washing and in neutralising. Purification is undertaken by means of formed-in-place hydrous zirconium (IV) oxide membranes which are deposited automatically on porous sintered stainless steel supports. While about the same total quantity of water is used to wash the wool as traditionally, fresh water consumption on selected washlines has been reduced by approximately half.

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Dlamini, S. P., J. Haarhoff, B. B. Mamba, and S. Van Staden. "The response of typical South African raw waters to enhanced coagulation." Water Supply 13, no. 1 (February 1, 2013): 20–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2012.071.

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Drinking water treatment plants in South Africa rely almost entirely on surface water sources, which are often compromised due to high return flows and indirect reuse. The typical treatment plants focus on the removal of physical and microbial contaminants which include turbidity, colour, chemical compounds and microorganisms. A relatively new concern to this list is natural organic matter (NOM) which has become a major concern in potable water treatment due to its recent regulation. In this study, eight different raw water samples from the various water types found in the country were seasonally collected and treated for the removal UV absorbance at a wavelength of 254 nm (UV254) using enhanced coagulation (EC). The efficacy of EC, which can be employed as a practical technology in the removal of both turbidity and NOM, was evaluated in remaining UV254 from these raw water sources. Jar tests were conducted, with ferric chloride used as the coagulant (due to its extensive use as a coagulant in the water treatment industry in South Africa) and specific pH values (initial water pH, 7.0, 6.0, 5.5, 5.0 and 4.5) were chosen as target values guiding the six different coagulant dosages for the jar tests. The pH of the low-alkalinity (<60 mg/L CaCO3) raw waters were adjusted and raised by the addition of sodium carbonate. The response parameters of the tests were turbidity (NTU), pH and UV254. Algorithms for finding the optimum coagulant dosage for UV254 removal were developed and consistently applied to all the results. Results showed large variations in the nature of NOM across the country from specific ultraviolet absorbance values. From the UV254 values, the concentrations of NOM also varied greatly geographically than temporally. The general trend observed in the EC results suggested that the pH should always be dropped to between 4.5 and 7.0 to lower the amounts of UV254 and turbidity to reasonable levels.

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Genthe, B., L. Ndlela, and T. Madlala. "Antimicrobial resistance screening and profiles: a glimpse from the South African perspective." Journal of Water and Health 18, no. 6 (October 21, 2020): 925–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.034.

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Abstract According to the Centre for Disease Dynamics Economics and Policy, South Africa represents a paradox of antibiotic management similar to other developing countries, with both overuse and underuse (resulting from lack of access) of antibiotics. In addition, wastewater reuse may contribute towards antibiotic resistance through selective pressure that increases resistance in native bacteria and on clinically relevant bacteria, increasing resistance profiles of the common pathogens. Sediments of surface water bodies and wastewater sludge provide a place where antibiotic resistance genes are transferred to other bacteria. Crop irrigation is thought to be a potential source of exposure to antibiotic-resistant bacteria through the transfer from the water or sludge into crops. The objectives of this study were to examine the antibiotic-resistance profiles of Escherishia coli from three agricultural locations in the Western Cape, South Africa. Using a classical microbiology culture approach, the resistance profiles of E. coli species isolated from river water and sediments, farm dams and their sediments and a passive algal wastewater treatment ponds and sediment used for crop irrigation were assessed for resistance to 13 commonly used antibiotics. Randomly selected E. coli isolates from the sediment and water were tested for resistance. 100% of E. coli isolates were resistant to sulphamethoxazole, highlighting its relevance in the South African context. In river water and farm dam samples, only the E. coli isolated from sediment were found to be resistant to fluoroquinolone or fluorifenicol. In the wastewater treatment ponds, the resistance profiles of E. coli isolated from sediments differed from those isolated from effluent, with 90% of the effluent isolates being resistant to ampicillin. Isolates from the sediment were less resistant (40%) to ampicillin, whereas all the isolates from the pond water and sediment samples were resistant to sulphamethoxazole. These results illustrate the importance of developing a better understanding of antibiotic resistance in agriculture and wastewater scenarios to ensure remedial measures take place where the greatest benefit can be realised especially in countries with limited financial and infrastructural resources. Moreover, the potential for passive algal treatment as an effective, feasible alternative for wastewater treatment is highlighted, with comparable resistance profiles and a reducing overall resistance in the sediment samples.

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Leuta, Qenehelo A., James P. Odendaal, and Arnelia N. Paulse. "Identification and enumeration of microbial organisms in grey water in the Khayelitsha informal settlement, Western Cape, South Africa." Water Supply 20, no. 3 (March 16, 2020): 1114–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2020.040.

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Abstract Grey water, as opposed to blackwater, is generally assumed to be a safer and more acceptable wastewater source that could be considered for reuse. This is mainly due to a common misconception that its microbial load is lower compared to that of blackwater (domestic sewage). This study aimed to determine the presence of microbial contaminants, specifically pathogens, in stagnant grey water in the RR Section in Khayelitsha, Western Cape. The most probable number (MPN) technique was conducted to determine faecal coliform (FC) and Escherichia coli (EC) counts in the samples. The API 20E and the RapID ONE systems were used to identify possible pathogenic Gram-negative microorganisms, while the isolated Gram-positive microorganisms were identified using the BBL Crystal Gram-Positive (GP) Identification (ID) system. The highest respective FC and EC counts observed during this period were recorded as 2.8 × 107 microorganisms/100 mL (Site F, week 5). The RapID ONE and the API 20 identification systems identified mostly Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species and Enterobacter cloacae, amongst others, while the BBL Crystal-GP ID system identified mostly Corynebacterium and Bacillus species. The presence of these organisms raises health concerns for the community of RR Section.

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Schoeman, J. J., J. F. van Staden, H. M. Saayman, and W. A. Vorster. "Evaluation of Reverse Osmosis for Electroplating Effluent Treatment." Water Science and Technology 25, no. 10 (May 1, 1992): 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0239.

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A South African developed tubular cellulose acetate reverse osmosis (RO) system from Membratek (Pty) Ltd was evaluated for the treatment of nickel rinse water and mixed electroplating effluent. Spiral wrap polyamide (DuPont) and thin film composite (FilmTec) membranes were evaluated for cadmium and chromium rinse water treatment, respectively. Preliminary laboratory results have shown that nickel rinse water should be treated economically with tubular RO. Approximately 92% of the rinse water could be recovered for reuse. The RO brine is of suitable quality for reuse in the electroplating process. Plant payback for a 5 m3/h nickel/water recovery RO plant was determined to.be 1.3 years (approximately 2 000 mg/ℓ Ni in feed). No severe membrane fouling was encountered during the investigation. However, membrane fouling can affect the process adversely and this will be studied further. Approximately 90% water, of suitable quality for reuse as rinse water in the plating process, could be recovered from mixed electroplating effluent. Effluent volume for subsequent treatment with lime was significantly reduced. It may also be possible to treat cadmium and chromium rinse waters with RO. Approximately 92% and 91% water, of suitable quality for reuse as rinse water, could be recovered with spiral wrap polyamide and thin film composite membranes, respectively. Membrane fouling was experienced during cadmium rinse water treatment. However, water flux could be restored by chemical cleaning. Very little fouling was experienced during chromium rinse water treatment. The fouling potential of the rinse waters for the membranes and subsequent cleaning procedures will be studied further. Preliminary results have shown that payback for 5 m3/h RO cadmium/water and RO chromium/water recovery plants should be 3 and 7 years, respectively. Reverse osmosis has been shown to be a very effective technology for water and chemical recovery and for effluent volume reduction. The electroplating industry causes serious pollution and wastes large volumes of water. Consequently, RO is a technology that may be applied to good effect in the electroplating industry to control pollution and to save scarce water.

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Jones, Edward R., Michelle T. H. van Vliet, Manzoor Qadir, and Marc F. P. Bierkens. "Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse." Earth System Science Data 13, no. 2 (February 8, 2021): 237–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-237-2021.

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Abstract. Continually improving and affordable wastewater management provides opportunities for both pollution reduction and clean water supply augmentation, while simultaneously promoting sustainable development and supporting the transition to a circular economy. This study aims to provide the first comprehensive and consistent global outlook on the state of domestic and manufacturing wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse. We use a data-driven approach, collating, cross-examining and standardising country-level wastewater data from online data resources. Where unavailable, data are estimated using multiple linear regression. Country-level wastewater data are subsequently downscaled and validated at 5 arcmin (∼10 km) resolution. This study estimates global wastewater production at 359.4×109 m3 yr−1, of which 63 % (225.6×109 m3 yr−1) is collected and 52 % (188.1×109 m3 yr−1) is treated. By extension, we estimate that 48 % of global wastewater production is released to the environment untreated, which is substantially lower than previous estimates of ∼80 %. An estimated 40.7×109 m3 yr−1 of treated wastewater is intentionally reused. Substantial differences in per capita wastewater production, collection and treatment are observed across different geographic regions and by level of economic development. For example, just over 16 % of the global population in high-income countries produces 41 % of global wastewater. Treated-wastewater reuse is particularly substantial in the Middle East and North Africa (15 %) and western Europe (16 %), while comprising just 5.8 % and 5.7 % of the global population, respectively. Our database serves as a reference for understanding the global wastewater status and for identifying hotspots where untreated wastewater is released to the environment, which are found particularly in South and Southeast Asia. Importantly, our results also serve as a baseline for evaluating progress towards many policy goals that are both directly and indirectly connected to wastewater management. Our spatially explicit results available at 5 arcmin resolution are well suited for supporting more detailed hydrological analyses such as water quality modelling and large-scale water resource assessments and can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.918731 (Jones et al., 2020).

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Nzima, B., A. A. Adegoke, U. A. Ofon, H. O. M. Al-Dahmoshi, M. Saki, U. U. Ndubuisi-Nnaji, and C. U. Inyang. "Resistotyping and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase genes among Escherichia coli from wastewater treatment plants and recipient surface water for reuse in South Africa." New Microbes and New Infections 38 (November 2020): 100803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100803.

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Armitage, N. P., K. Winter, A. Spiegel, and E. Kruger. "Community-focused greywater management in two informal settlements in South Africa." Water Science and Technology 59, no. 12 (June 1, 2009): 2341–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.294.

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South Africa is struggling to provide services to the millions of poor people migrating to the major centres and living in informal settlements (shanty towns). Whilst the local authorities are generally able to provide potable water from the municipal network to communal taps scattered around the settlements, there is usually inadequate provision of sanitation and little or no provision for the drainage of either stormwater or greywater. This paper describes an investigation into ways of engaging with community structures in the settlements with a view to encouraging “self-help” solutions to greywater management requiring minimal capital investment as an interim “crisis” solution until such time that local and national government is able to provide formal services to everyone. The work was carried out in three settlements encompassing a range of different conditions. Only two are described here. It has become clear that the management of greywater has a low priority amongst the residents of informal settlements. The lack of effective political structures and the breakdown in communication with Ward Councillors and local government officials have contributed to the lack of progress. As the project progressed it became evident that greywater cannot be considered separately from stormwater, sanitation and refuse removal.

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Gianadda, P., C. J. Brouckaert, R. Sayer, and C. A. Buckley. "The application of pinch analysis to water, reagent and effluent management in a chlor-alkali facility." Water Science and Technology 46, no. 9 (November 1, 2002): 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0196.

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South African industry is coming under increasing pressure to reduce the amount of freshwater it uses and the amount of effluent it produces. Water pinch is a cleaner production technique aimed at reducing the freshwater consumption and effluent production within a chemical complex. The design of water-reuse or water pinch networks as applied to the case study of a chlor-alkali complex is considered. Insights are provided into the analysis and formulation of problems for large-scale industrial systems and the application of present techniques and tools to the formulated problem is illustrated. The features of the problem posed by the chlor-alkali facility are discussed and the limitations of the present theory in dealing with this problem highlighted. The concepts of utility-water pinch analysis and process-water pinch analysis are introduced.

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Aziz, Mujahid, and Tunde Ojumu. "Exclusion of Estrogenic and Androgenic Steroid Hormones from Municipal Membrane Bioreactor Wastewater Using UF/NF/RO Membranes for Water Reuse Application." Membranes 10, no. 3 (February 27, 2020): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/membranes10030037.

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In the context of water scarcity, domestic secondary effluent reuse may be an option as a reliable source for alleviating acute water shortage. The increasing risks linked with the presence of natural steroid hormones and many emerging anthropogenic micropollutants (MPs) passing through municipal wastewater treatment works (MWWTWs) are of concern for their endocrine-disrupting activities. In this study, domestic wastewater treated by a full-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) at an MWWTW in the Western Cape Province, South Africa, was used directly as the influent to a reverse osmosis (RO) pilot plant for the removal of selected natural steroid hormones 17β-estradiol (E2) and testosterone (T) as a potential indirect water recycling application. Estrogenicity and androgenicity were assessed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and the recombinant yeast estrogen receptor binding assays (YES). The influent pH and flux did not influence the rejection of E2 and T, which was most likely due to adsorption, size exclusion, and diffusion simultaneously. RO and nanofiltration (NF) exhibited excellent removal rates (>95%) for E2 and T. All the E2 effluent samples with MBR/ultrafiltration (UF), MBR/NF, and MBR/RO were lower than the US EPA and WHO trigger value of 0.7 ng/L, as well as the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values for fish (1 ng E2/L).

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Saldías, Cecilia, Stijn Speelman, Guido Van Huylenbroeck, and Nick Vink. "Understanding farmers’ preferences for wastewater reuse frameworks in agricultural irrigation: lessons from a choice experiment in the Western Cape, South Africa." Water SA 42, no. 1 (January 29, 2016): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v42i1.04.

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Oberholster, Paul J., Maronel Steyn, and Anna-Maria Botha. "A Comparative Study of Improvement of Phycoremediation Using a Consortium of Microalgae in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Pond Systems as an Alternative Solution to Africa’s Sanitation Challenges." Processes 9, no. 9 (September 18, 2021): 1677. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9091677.

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The reuse of wastewater has been observed as a viable option to cope with increasing water stress in Africa. The present case studies evaluated the optimization of the process of phycoremediation as an alternative low-cost green treatment technology in two municipality wastewater treatment pond systems that make up the largest number of domestic sewage treatment systems on the African continent. A consortium of specific microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella protothecoides) was used to improve the treatment capacity of domestic wastewater at two operational municipality wastewater pond systems under different environmental conditions in South Africa. Pre- and post-phycoremediation optimization through mass inoculation of a consortium of microalgae, over a period of one year under different environmental conditions, were compared. It was evident that the higher reduction of total phosphates (74.4%) in the effluent, after treatment with a consortium of microalgae at the Motetema pond system, was possibly related to (1) the dominance of the algal taxa C. protothecoides (52%), and to a lesser extent C. vulgaris (36%), (2) more cloudless days, (3) higher air temperature, and (4) a higher domestic wastewater strength. In the case of the Brandwag pond treatment system, the higher reduction of total nitrogen can possibly be related to the dominance of C. vulgaris, different weather conditions, and lower domestic wastewater strength. The nutrient reduction data from the current study clearly presented compelling evidence in terms of the feasibility for use of this technology in developing countries to reduce nutrient loads from domestic wastewater effluent.

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Jimenez, B., A. Austin, E. Cloete, and C. Phasha. "Using Ecosan sludge for crop production." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 5 (September 1, 2006): 169–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.560.

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This paper presents the microbial risks associated with the reuse of Ecosan sludge in agriculture. Sludge from KwaZulu Natal Province in South Africa with a helminth ova content of 30 HO/g TS, faecal coliforms of 106 CFU/g TS, faecal streptococci of 106 CFU/g TS and Salmonella spp. of 105 CFU/g TS was used for this purpose. Applying different rates of sludge to spinach and carrots resulted in an increase in bacterial and helminth ova counts in crops as the quantity of sludge increased. The helminth ova content in crops was always greater in leaves than in stems, with a content varying from 2 to 15 HO/g TS for spinach with sludge application rates of 0–37.5 ton/ha and from 2–8 HO/g TS for carrot crops with sludge application rates varying from 0–35 ton/ha. Nevertheless, viability in crops was 20–25%, reducing the risk of disease. Consequently, the development of an Ecosan sludge revalorisation standard is considered important. Some recommendations are made taking into account the characteristics of the sludge as well as conditions in rural areas.

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Kweinor Tetteh, E., S. Rathilal, and K. Robinson. "Treatment of industrial mineral oil wastewater – effects of coagulant type and dosage." Water Practice and Technology 12, no. 1 (March 1, 2017): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2017.021.

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The use of coagulants is essential in the diverse disciplines of conventional water and wastewater treatment. This work aimed to select an economic and effective coagulant, to minimize the cost of treatment and the oil droplet content of the water, thus enhancing the efficiency of a local South African oil refinery effluent plant recovering water and oil for reuse by treating the industrial mineral oil wastewater. A standard dissolved air flotation jar test preceded evaluation of four coagulants, viz. aluminum sulfate (Alum), aluminum chloride, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride. Chemical oxygen demand, soap oil and grease, total suspended solids and turbidity were determined as water quality parameters to check coagulant efficiency. Removal of over 70% was achieved for each parameter. The results obtained at pH 5 and coagulant dose of 50 mg/L showed that alum was the best pretreatment coagulant for destabilizing and minimizing oil droplets in water, due to its trivalent cationic nature. It was also economically viable.

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OMOFUNMI, O. E. "THE PRELIMINARY STUDY ON THE SUITABILITY OF AFRICAN CATFISH EFFLUENT AS IRRIGATION WATER SOURCE IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA." Journal of Agricultural Science and Environment 16, no. 2 (November 22, 2017): 107–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.51406/jagse.v16i2.1712.

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The reuse of catfish pond effluent by irrigation can make a significant contribution to the integrated management of our water resources. The study was done to evaluate African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) quality pond effluent quality and its suitability for irrigation. Forty (40) samples were collected from five ponds. Physical and chemical parameters of catfish effluent samples from selected earthen ponds were determined in accordance with the American Public Health Association standards. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that there were variations in the chemical constituents of the effluent measured in the selected ponds. The mean values of physical and chemical parameters ranged as pH (6.2 – 8.1), total dissolved solids (140 -307 mg/l); suspended solids (32 – 78 mg/l), electrical conductivity of water (0.21 – 0.48 mmhos/cm), alkalinity (45 – 138 mg/l), total nitrogen (4.5 – 6.9 mg/l), total phosphorus (0.11 – 0.35 mg/l), sodium (11 -31 mg/l), calcium (24.1 – 69.0 mg/l), potassium (0.16 – 0.41 mg/l), magnesium (8.2 -12.0 mg/l), carbonate (8 -40 mg/l), bicarbonate (20 – 95 mg/l), chloride (10.4 – 25.8 mg/l), boron (0.2 – 0.4 mg/l) and biochemical oxygen demand (4.4 – 8.2 mg/l). All were within acceptable limits. The African catfish effluents in the studied earthen ponds are classified as C1 – S1 water. Hence there are none degree of restriction in the application of catfish effluent for irrigation.

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Aadnesgaard, Victoria, and Gizelle Willows. "Audit outcomes and the level of service delivery within local government municipalities in South Africa." Corporate Ownership and Control 13, no. 2 (2016): 546–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv13i2c3p5.

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The South African Government evaluates municipalities on how well Integrated Development Plan in terms of service delivery are met. This study aims to examine whether a positive correlation exists between the service deliveries of district municipalities across six indicators: water provision, sanitation, weekly refuse removal, electricity, housing, and economic development; and the audit outcomes of each municipality. The purpose is to establish whether good governance leads to effective service delivery as well as to establish an accountability mechanism for which municipalities can be measured against. The result was a moderate correlation between audit outcomes and service delivery. In terms of establishing an accountability framework, this paper concludes that an examination of audit outcomes and service provision together would be beneficial.

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Mutyambizi, Chipo, Tholang Mokhele, Catherine Ndinda, and Charles Hongoro. "Access to and Satisfaction with Basic Services in Informal Settlements: Results from a Baseline Assessment Survey." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12 (June 19, 2020): 4400. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124400.

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Subjective responses of satisfaction with basic services delivery is an indicator of service delivery performance. This study provides an overview of the status of basic service delivery and determines the factors associated with service delivery satisfaction within informal settlements targeted for upgrading in South Africa. A multinomial logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between satisfaction with basic services of water, sanitation, refuse and electricity with several predictors including individual factors, household factors, community factors and service-related factors. The most common source of drinking water, toilet facility and refuse disposal method were communal tap (55%) pit latrine (53%) and local authorities (34%), respectively. Approximately 52% of the respondents in the study reported not having access to electricity. Results also show that satisfaction in basic services delivery varies and is influenced by service-related factors. Interventions targeted at improving the quality of basic service provided are essential to meet the targets set out in the sustainable development goals.

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Menyuka, Sibanda, and Bob. "Perceptions of the Challenges and Opportunities of Utilising Organic Waste through Urban Agriculture in the Durban South Basin." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4 (February 12, 2020): 1158. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041158.

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Waste management has become pertinent in urban regions, along with rapid population growth. The current ways of managing waste, such as refuse collection and recycling, are failing to minimise waste in cities. With urban populations growing worldwide, there is the challenge of increased pressure to import food from rural areas. Urban agriculture not only presents an opportunity to explore other means of sustainable food production, but for managing organic waste in cities. However, this opportunity is not taken advantage of. Besides, there is a challenge of mixed reactions from urban planners and policymakers concerning the challenges and benefits presented by using organic waste in urban agriculture. The current paper explores the perceived challenges and opportunities for organic waste utilisation and management through urban agriculture in the Durban South Basin in eThekwini Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province of South Africa. It is anticipated that this information will be of use to the eThekwini Municipality, policymakers, researchers, urban agriculture initiatives, households and relevant stakeholders in the study areas and similar contexts globally. Two hundred (200) households involved in any urban farming activity and ten (10) key informants (six (6) staff from the Cleaning and Solid Waste Unit of the eThekwini Municipality and four (4) from the urban agricultural initiative) were selected using convenient sampling. Descriptive statistics and inductive thematic analysis were used to analyse data. The significant perceived challenges and risks associated with the utilisation of organic waste through urban agriculture included lack of a supporting policy, climatic variation, lack of land tenure rights, soil contamination and food safety concerns. Qualitative data further showed that the difficulty in segregating waste, water scarcity, difficulty in accessing inputs, limited transportation of organic waste, inadequate handling and treatment of organic waste, and being a health hazard were some important challenges. On the other hand, the significant perceived benefits associated with the utilisation of organic waste through urban agriculture were enhanced food and nutrition security, and opportunities for business incubation. Other important benefits established through qualitative data were an improved market expansion for farmers and improved productivity. Overall, despite the perceived challenges and risks, there is an opportunity to manage organic waste through urban agriculture. It is imperative for an integrated policy encompassing the food, climate and waste management to be developed to support this strategy. All stakeholders—the government, municipal authorities and urban agricultural initiatives should also, guided by the policy, support urban farmers, for example, through pieces of training on how to properly manage and recycle organic waste, land distribution, inputs availability and water usage rights among other things.

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Bauer, S., A. Dell, J. Behnisch, H. Chen, X. Bi, V. A. Nguyen, H. J. Linke, and M. Wagner. "Water-reuse concepts for industrial parks in water-stressed regions in South East Asia." Water Supply 20, no. 1 (November 6, 2019): 296–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2019.162.

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Abstract With regard to the water shortage in several regions of South East Asia, the paper focuses on the development of a sustainable Industrial WasteWater Management Concept with the focus on Reuse (brand name: IW2MC → R) to reduce water consumption from natural resources. The IW2MC → R includes the sustainable treatment of wastewater in industrial parks (IP) to provide reuse water for different purposes. The main objective is to reach the highest possible Industrial Park Reuse Factor (IPRF). The IPRF describes the relation between wastewater inflow to the central wastewater treatment plant and the outflow of reuse water for different applications. The Infrastructure Reuse Factor (IRF), one component of the IPRF, relates to infrastructural reuse applications (e.g. irrigation, street cleaning, toilet flushing). To determine the IRF, a model industrial park is applied. A first calculation resulting in an IRF of ∼25% includes reuse applications for irrigating green spaces, street cleaning, and toilet flushing. In cases when other applications for reuse water are considered (e.g. cooling or firefighting water), the IRF can be higher than 25%. Thus, the IW2MC → R provides a sustainable solution strategy, especially for water-stressed regions, to drive new IP developments by reducing water extraction from natural resources.

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Cazurra, Tomás. "Water reuse of south Barcelona's wastewater reclamation plant." Desalination 218, no. 1-3 (January 2008): 43–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.019.

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Adewumi, J. R., A. A. Ilemobade, and J. E. Van Zyl. "Treated wastewater reuse in South Africa: Overview, potential and challenges." Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55, no. 2 (December 2010): 221–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.09.012.

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Aitken, Victoria, Sarah Bell, Sian Hills, and Lucy Rees. "Public acceptability of indirect potable water reuse in the south-east of England." Water Supply 14, no. 5 (May 20, 2014): 875–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.051.

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Public controversy over planned indirect potable reuse of wastewater has been a significant obstacle to implementing proposed schemes in the United States and Australia. Surveys of public attitudes to water reuse have generally shown lower acceptance of indirect potable reuse compared with other reuse options, such as irrigation. The south-east of England is projected to experience a shortfall in water supply by 2020 and the largest water utility in the region, Thames Water, is investigating indirect potable reuse as a potential new supply option. The indirect potable reuse feasibility studies include evaluation of the technology options and water quality as well as detailed consideration of public perception issues. As part of the work to address the latter, 2,000 Thames Water customers participated in an on-line survey of their attitudes to indirect potable reuse. The survey showed overall support for the idea of indirect potable reuse. The only demographic factor to show any significant difference from the whole sample was belief system, with Muslim respondents showing significantly less support than other groups. The survey results indicate that indirect potable reuse may be socially acceptable in the south-east of England, but that public engagement and participation in future decision making about indirect potable reuse will be important for the success of any particular proposal.

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Traves, W. H., E. A. Gardner, B. Dennien, and D. Spiller. "Towards indirect potable reuse in South East Queensland." Water Science and Technology 58, no. 1 (July 1, 2008): 153–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.635.

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Faced with limited water supply options in the longer term and the worst drought on record in the short term, the Queensland Government is constructing the Western Corridor Recycled Water Project which will supply up to 182 ML/day of purified recycled water for industrial and potable purposes. The project is one of a suite of capital works projects in progress which in the longer term will supply up to 10% of the region's potable water supply.

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38

HAMODA, M. "Water strategies and potential of water reuse in the south Mediterranean countries." Desalination 165 (August 15, 2004): 31–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0011-9164(04)00209-7.

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Hamoda, Mohamed F. "Water strategies and potential of water reuse in the south Mediterranean countries." Desalination 165 (August 2004): 31–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2004.06.004.

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Backeberg, Gerhard R. "Water institutional reforms in South Africa." Water Policy 7, no. 1 (February 1, 2005): 107–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2005.0007.

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A comprehensive program of water institutional reforms has been implemented in South Africa since 1994. These reforms followed some major reform on the political and economic fronts. The institutional changes that occurred in the water sector covered the policy legal, and organizational dimensions of water allocation and management and affected all water sub-sectors including environmental allocations. The reform process has culminated in a new national water policy, a national water act and a national water resources strategy. Substantial organizational changes have also occurred with a focus on management decentralization, user participation and license-based allocation of water. This paper aims to provide an overview of these and other changes, especially from the perspective of irrigation and agriculture. It also attempts to explain the emergence and implementation of the water institutional reforms process in the light of the results reported in recent literature on water institutional reforms. The paper provides evidence for the role of transaction cost and political economy considerations as well as the use of reform design and implementation principles such as institutional sequencing and reform timing.

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J. Teunis Vahrmeijer, John G. Annandale, Mark B. Gush, and Nicolette J. Taylor. "CITRUS WATER USE IN SOUTH AFRICA." Acta Horticulturae, no. 1065 (January 2015): 1719–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2015.1065.220.

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Woodworth, Paddy. "Working for Water in South Africa." World Policy Journal 23, no. 2 (June 2006): 31–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/wopj.2006.23.2.31.

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Albaugh, Janine M., Peter J. Dye, and John S. King. "Eucalyptusand Water Use in South Africa." International Journal of Forestry Research 2013 (2013): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/852540.

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TheEucalyptusgenus yields high rates of productivity and can be grown across a wide range of site types and climates for products such as pulp, fuelwood, or construction lumber. In addition, many eucalypts have the ability to coppice, making this genus an ideal candidate for use as a biofuel feedstock. However, the water use ofEucalyptusis a controversial issue, and the impacts of these fast-growing trees on water resources are well documented. Regardless, the demand for wood products and water continues to rise, providing a challenge to increase the productivity of forest plantations within water constraints. This is of particular relevance for water-limited countries such as South Africa which relies on exotic plantations to meet its timber needs. Research results from water use studies in South Africa are well documented and legislation restrictions limit further afforestation. This paper outlines techniques used to quantify the water use of eucalypt plantations and provides recommendations on where to focus future research efforts. Greater insights into the water use efficiency of clonal material are needed, as certain eucalypt clones show fast growth and low water use. To better understand water use efficiency, estimates should be combined with monitoring of stand canopy structure and measurements of physiological processes.

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McCornick, Peter. "Wastewater reuse in the Middle East and North Africa." Waterlines 23, no. 1 (July 2004): 9–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2004.033.

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Wakhungu, M. J. "An ethnography of policy: water reuse policy in Kenya." Water Policy 21, no. 2 (February 4, 2019): 436–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.160.

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Abstract Water scarcity and inadequate infrastructure for sanitation are two challenges that are emblematic to Kenya and other developing nations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Under such circumstances, water reuse has the potential to address these challenges but only under a favourable policy environment. In this paper, policy documents were considered as the ethnographic object to understand how people talk about water reuse in Kenya through policies, plans, regulations and guidelines. Using a general inductive approach to content analysis, the findings suggest that Kenya's policy on water reuse has progressed, especially in the recognition of the potential of reused water for addressing water scarcity, pollution, cleaner industrial production, food production, and climate change adaptation and mitigation. While many of the water reuse issues have been discussed under water and irrigation, environment and industrialization, other key sectors such as food and agriculture, housing, urban development and health remain silent on water reuse. Therefore, there is a need to take water reuse conversations beyond the water, environment, and industrialisation sectors if we are to address the water supply and wastewater management issues. Likewise, the study reminds us of the importance of foregrounding public perception and harmonized institutional arrangements in the success of water reuse in the country.

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Muller, Mike. "Polycentric governance: water management in South Africa." Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Management, Procurement and Law 165, no. 3 (August 2012): 193–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/mpal.11.00018.

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Claassen, Marius. "Integrated Water Resource Management in South Africa." International Journal of Water Governance 1, no. 3 (July 1, 2013): 323–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.7564/13-ijwg12.

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Taljaard, Susan, and Willem A. M. Botes. "Marine water quality management in South Africa." Water Science and Technology 32, no. 2 (July 1, 1995): 281–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1995.0118.

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In South Africa the ultimate goal in water quality management is to keep the water resources suitable for all “beneficial uses”. Beneficial uses provides a basis for the derivation of water quality guidelines, which, for South Africa, are defined in Water quality guidelines for the South African coastal zone (DWAF, 1991). The CSIR has developed a practical approach to marine water quality management, taking into account international trends and local experience, which can be applied to any coastal development with potential influence on water quality. The management plan is divided into three logical components, i.e. • site-specific statutory requirements and environmental objectives; • system design with specific reference to influences on water quality; and • monitoring programmes. Within this management approach water quality issues are addressed in a holistic manner, through focused procedures and clear identification of information requirements. This paper describes the procedures and information requirements within each component of the water quality management plan, with specific reference to marine disposal systems. Ideally, the management plan should be implemented from the feasibility and conceptual design phase of a development and the timing of the different procedures within the development process are therefore also highlighted. However, the logical lay-out of procedures allows for easy initiation (even to existing disposal system) at any stage of development.

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Mutume, Gumisai. "South Africa sets pace on rural water." Africa Renewal 18, no. 2 (July 31, 2004): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/2ae34822-en.

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Smakhtin, Vladimir, Peter Ashton, Allan Batchelor, Reinhard Meyer, Eric Murray, Bohuslav Barta, Norbert Bauer, Dhesigen Naidoo, Jana Olivier, and Deon Terblanche. "Unconventional Water Supply Options in South Africa." Water International 26, no. 3 (September 2001): 314–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060108686924.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Water reuse, South Africa'

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