Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Water scarcity'

In the first chapter, I consider the institutional structures as well as the doctrines typically encountered in the surface water sector. To investigate the sources and methods of government support in the water sector, I categorize different sorts of government support according to the location of water along the water cycle. I conclude the section with examples of observed water markets. In the second chapter, I consider the problem of water usage, developing a model to analyze the optimal pricing of water within a second-best economy. As a water supplier, the local government may price discriminate across consumers and farmers. I introduce the second-best pricing scheme, derive conditions for the marginal-cost pricing and inverse-elasticity rules, and analyze when the government optimally deviates from these two pricing schemes. In the third chapter, I provide an analysis of the data I collected from Turkey. First, I examine the data on reservoir flows, including service share and fixed costs of the reservoirs. Then, I provide details about the relationship between the quantity and price of irrigation and of tap water. Finally, in the fourth chapter, I apply the theoretical framework to the data from Turkey. In Turkey, the current water-pricing policy is dictated by the sole objective of breaking-even in each period. This results in large withdrawals, which is not sustainable in the long-run, hence not optimal. I analyze the dynamic optimal water resource management problem of a benevolent government. I compare the implications of the current and the optimal pricing policies.

This research addresses two themes: water scarcity and water resource management in the Philippines. Since 2004 the Philippines had been involved in the meeting the country’s Millennium Development Goal’s safe water target. Significant improvements have been achieved in access to drinking water in the rural areas, increasing coverage from 73 per cent to 91 per cent in 2012. Despite this achievement, there are still approximately 4.5 million rural residents in the country without access to safe water. I use the persistence of waterlessness in rural Philippines as a lens to examine the problems of the standardized approach to rural water provision in the Philippines. The core research question informing the research is: how do the conceptualisations of water scarcity by the households and the institutions that are tasked to manage it influence water access? I use ethnographic methodologies combined with mapping techniques to examine the experiences of rural villagers in three different case study sites that were identified as water scarce/waterless in the Province of Agusan del Sur in Mindanao in the Southern Philippines. These three villages characterize three landscapes (uplands, lowlands and wetlands) that face distinctive types of water scarcity issues. The empirical exploration of people’s experiences gives rise to questions how a basic service such as domestic water supply is provisioned by the state. In this regard, the communities’ practices of accessing and using water, government practices of providing water in the villages and the biophysical conditions of the area are points of interest. The case studies reveal that standardized approach to water scarcity, which assumes the communities’ water problems relate to lack of investment and infrastructure and mostly focusing on engineering solutions to provide groundwater, fails to address the concerns of the local people who perceived water scarcity in different ways than the government agencies. In some cases it does not work because it is not technically possible due to the site’s geology and hydrology, in others it does not address the problem of inadequacy of water for domestic needs of the community, or in some its salinity is unacceptable for the community. The study demonstrates the importance of examining the specific context of situations where water access is an issue. It also shows the value of ethnographic methodology in such research.

The Kingdom of Jordan is one of the world's most water poor countries suffering from physical water scarcity, a growing population, regional instability, poor water infrastructure, inefficient water sector management and high water misuse. Through conducting a content analysis of 73 USAID reports, focusing on water demand management, this paper aims to understand how water demand is managed in the Kingdom, in addition to understanding the role of international aid in transforming Jordan's water sector. A greater understanding of the crisis and actions taken to mitigate the impacts were revealed by examining specific water polices and laws, the role of government structures and water sectors, and implemented projects. It was found that Jordan has taken significant efforts to sustainably manage water resources and to address growing water demand. Reallocating water among various sectors, reducing non-revenue water, and decentralizing water provision are key priorities outlined in the Kingdom's water strategy.

Is there no development without water? Are arid and dry regions destined to face water scarcity? This essay argues that with globalisation and technological advancements in the water sector are making time and place less relevant for hydro securing societies. Instead, relevant for water insecure countries is the asymmetrical access to technologies and management. For instance, landscapes that are preconditioned to be dry are no longer determined to face water scarcity because of desalination industries such as in the case of Saudi Arabia. This paper will address the three following questions: a) What factors can explain water scarcity conditions in which they are not geographically preconditioned? b) In what ways have technological interventions created water security for societies living in geographically pre-conditioned physically water-scarce regions? c) Why is Saudi Arabia, a country who lack access to physical water sources such as rivers, lakes or groundwater not determined to become underdeveloped? The result from this qualitative research suggests that technological advancements does compress time and space and makes some societies living in dry and arid regions able to access fresh water from far distances. The example taken with the virtual water trading and the polar ice towing illustrates that with the capacity to invest in technologies may overcome environmental deterministic factors.

Jordan is among the poorest countries in the world with respect to water resources. Water scarcity in Jordan is an alarming problem that can jeopardize the economy and the stability of the country. It is a multidimensional problem caused by many factors such as the fluctuation of annual precipitation rates, the rapid change in population caused by the refugee influx from neighbouring countries, and the economic situation of the country. The water scarcity problem is aggravated by limitations in water management. This research investigated the shortcomings of water management that contribute to water scarcity. It involves a literature review, a survey questionnaire and interviews. These methods aim to assess the current challenges that prompt water scarcity, understand the water management shortcomings and their causes, identify the existing government solutions for water scarcity, and propose a sustainable solution for this problem. The research finds that water management in Jordan has several shortcomings such as the lack of monitoring and controlling water resources and preventing illegal drilling, the incapability of the government to reduce the non-revenue water as a result of aged water network and water theft, and illegal practices of the agricultural and industrial sectors. This research proposed a solution that aim to mitigate water scarcity in Jordan by enhancing several management practices. Moreover, the proposed solution calls for efficient managerial practices to be adopted by decision makers and the public. I argue that the proposed solutions are sustainable and cheaper than the existing government solutions that rely on searching for new water resources rather than improving water management.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has a mean annual precipitation far lower than the global average. This is a fundamental constraint to development, especially when the country has already run out of surplus water and dilution capacity. To add further pressure, Southern Africa’s water resources are expected to decrease as a result of climate change. Despite the potential devastation, the country’s response to climate change has been limited. South Africa’s energy sector is dominated by coal power stations and is the country’s primary emitter of carbon dioxide. Given the significantly higher water usage of coal-fired power plants compared to that of most renewable energy power plants, the transition to a clean energy infrastructure might be more successfully motivated by water scarcity than by the promise of reduced carbon emissions. This article analyses more critically the impact of coal-fired electricity generation on South Africa’s water resources, by estimating a water-use figure that extends backwards from the power plant to include water used during extraction of the coal. This figure can then be compared to the water usage of alternative electricity generation options. It is then possible to estimate how much water could be saved by substituting these alternatives in place of additional coal-fired plants.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se gemiddelde jaarlikse neerslag is baie laer as die wêreldwye gemiddelde. Dit plaas ’n wesenlike beperking op ontwikkeling, veral aangesien die land se surplus water- en verdunningskapasiteit reeds uitgeput is. Om die saak verder te vererger, word verwag dat Suidelike Afrika se waterbronne gaan kleiner word as gevolg van klimaatsverandering. Ten spyte van die potensiële ramp, was die land se reaksie op klimaatsverandering tot dusver baie beperk. Steenkoolkragstasies, wat Suid-Afrika se energiesektor oorheers, is die land se primêre bron van koolstofdioksieduitlating. Gegewe die beduidend hoër waterverbruik van steenkoolkragstasies teenoor dié van die meeste kragstasies wat met hernubare energie werk, kan die verandering na ’n skoonenergie-infrastruktuur meer suksesvol gemotiveer word deur waterskaarste as deur die belofte van verminderde koolstofuitlatings. Hierdie artikel analiseer die impak van steenkoolgedrewe elektrisiteitsopwekking op Suid-Afrika se waterbronne meer krities deur te beraam hoeveel water verbruik word van die kragstasie terug tot by die ontginning van die steenkool. Hierdie syfer kan dan vergelyk word met die waterverbruik van alternatiewe kragopwekkingsopsies. Dit is dan moontlik om te beraam hoeveel water gespaar kan word deur hierdie alternatiewe op te rig in plaas van bykomende steenkoolkragstasies.

In developing countries, farmers are dealing with climatic changes by adapting their agricultural practices. Little work has investigated the direct impact of structural variables (e.g., central vs. local management of irrigation water, location of village), psychological variables (e.g., risk perceptions, self-efficacy), and adaptation on crop yield. We tested a psychology-based model that focused on risk perceptions and efficacy beliefs by longitudinally surveying 278 Sri Lankan rice farmers. We assessed risk perceptions and efficacy beliefs before the major paddy-growing season and measured whether farmers performed adaptations as well as their paddy yield/acre after the season. The model significantly predicted more than 25% of the variance in crop yield, with increased yields associated with centrally managed irrigation resources and with farmers low in perceived climate risk at the start of the growing season. Findings support the notion that while psychological factors are important, structural variables are the most important predictors of farm productivity in times of uncertain water supply.

This thesis explores the seriousness of the impact of water resource scarcity on China’s energy security. It starts from the premise that water resources are necessary for coal-fired energy production, which is itself crucial for maintaining China’s required power generation, and shows how increasing coal-energy demands and diminishing water resources have combined to threaten China’s energy security. To assess the seriousness of the threat it employs the securitization analysis frameworks proposed by the Copenhagen School and Mely Caballero-Anthony and Ralf Emmers, arguing that water resources were securitized in relation to energy in China’s ‘Three Red Lines’ Number One Document in 2011. Subsequently it analyses whether and to what degree securitization resulted in policy action and policy success with respect to two important topic areas: (i) geographical distribution of water resources vis-a-vis coal-fired energy production; and, (ii) efficiency of water resource use. It argues that consideration of such factors makes for a better understanding of the empirical situation and finds that securitization resulted in significant and degrees of policy action in both topic areas, and moderate and insignificant degrees of policy success in geographical distribution of water resources vis-a-vis coal-fired energy production and efficiency of water resource use respectively. In light of this, it argues that China is very concerned about the impact of water resource scarcity on its energy security. Moreover, in order to explain the discrepancies between securitization and degrees of policy success, it introduces new additions to the aforementioned securitization frameworks - potential constraints, structural feasibility issues, timeframes, and uncertainty - which the paper argues helps explain such discrepancies as well as improve understanding of the empirical landscape. As a result of this, it argues that these additions to the theoretical frameworks should be used in future studies of securitization.
Arts, Faculty of
Political Science, Department of
Graduate

A review of how water institutions in the American West have changed in response to arid conditions as a means of examining the possibility of further change as an adaptation to climate change induced water scarcity. Two institutions are examined, prior appropriation and shares. While much of the American West operates under prior appropriation formally, irrigators have found Coasian methods of lowering transaction costs by forming irrigation companies. Irrigation companies own appropriative rights and redefine them, typically as shares. Lower transaction costs allow irrigators to trade more freely within companies, though trades between companies still face high transaction costs. Using a dataset of Utah’s 1100+ irrigation companies collected from the Utah Division of Water Rights, I measure the extent to which these companies have internalized transaction costs. Because most, if not all, irrigation companies transform appropriative rights into some form of shares, regions facing more water scarcity should be more likely to manage water by using shares rather than appropriative rights. I test the hypothesis that an increase in water scarcity makes trade more valuable and thereby increases the relative opportunity costs of managing a river through appropriative rights versus shares.

This thesis sought to explore the perceptions and experiences of Andean women regarding water quality, water scarcity, and health among two communities in Carhuaz province of Ancash, Peru. Household surveys (n=25), semi-structured interviews (n=10), unstructured interviews (n=2), and participant observation were conducted with local women to investigate their concerns and perceptions of water and health. An additional two unstructured interviews were conducted with a local water authority and doctor in order gain another perspective on the issues of water security and health. The pressure of a changing climate and of a problematic water governance system in Andean Peru create an opening in which to explore local women’s experiences with water and health. Additionally, the socio-history of the region, issues of gender and ethnicity, and the various water users at stake must be considered as they help form the women’s perceptions and experiences. The findings suggest there is concern among women in both communities on water scarcity and water quality. Furthermore, the relationship between diarrhea and community was found to be significant. The results of this study help situate the local experiences within the broader economic and social processes of the region.

The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.

The Maltese Islands have a history of water resource problems. A high proportion of the Maltese population has suffered over the past few years from water scarcity caused mainly by: (a) a shortage in water production and escalating water demands; (b) rising salinity levels in groundwater and tap water; (c) an undersized and deteriorating distribution system; and (d) increasing levels of groundwater pollution. There is a spatial variation in the intensity of these problems. They are greatest in the south of Malta and it has been suggested that this is due to geopolitical, as well as social, economic and physical, factors. This inequity in water supply has, for many years, been blamed on the politicisation of water. The causes of the water problems are presented and the problems, themselves, are analysed. The link between the water problems and the politicisation of water and conflicts over water resources, is established and discussed. Finally, solutions, through water management and future planned developments, are presented. Social and geopolitical information was gathered mainly through qualitative interviews with water consumers, water suppliers, decision makers, academics and members of non-Governmental organisations, in Malta. Quantitative data on hydrology and the entire water management system was collected and analysed. An extensive literary search to support the physical, social, economic and geopolitical aspects of the research and to obtain legal information, was also undertaken. In conclusion, although the water problems have been enhanced by unsustainable management, they are a part of a wider geopolitical problem, especially the inequitable water supply. In particular, settlements with an affiliation to the political party in Government are better supplied than settlements that support the Opposition. In addition, water conflicts, at all scales, arise due to water scarcity and a lack or absence of water sharing regulations and, of course, human nature.

When water is scarce, disputes over how to share it fairly and effectively are frequent. Understanding how people view and respond to water scarcity conflict is essential if it is to be addressed constructively. Through an interdisciplinary lens of hydropolitics and peace and conflict studies, this research used semi-structured interviews and interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) to investigate lived experience of sharing scarce water resources in Australia’s Murray-Darling/Barka Basin and Yemen’s Jibal as-Sarawat. Across divergent hydrological, cultural and political contexts, the study gained rich insight into how top decision-makers, mid-level community leaders and grassroots water sharers make sense of their relationships to water and emergent conflict in the face of water scarcity, as well as barriers to and opportunities for fair and peaceful water sharing. The study demonstrated that water scarcity conflict can wear down community resilience long before physiological needs arise, with devastating effects on mental health and social cohesion. Unpredictability, lack of information, social division and perceived injustice among basin stakeholders represent barriers to constructive water sharing outcomes. Opportunities to transform this conflict lie in expanding understandings of hydro-hegemony to incorporate the satisfaction of basic human water needs best understood as social in nature. However, this represents an ongoing process which is costly and replete with paradox. Despite water scarcity theory, policy and practice being dominated by positivist approaches, community resilience to the immense stresses of water scarcity can be found in acknowledging and holding emergent tensions between predictability and adaptability; simplicity and complexity; and personal and social responsibility.

Doutoramento em Restauro e Gestão Fluviais - Instituto Superior de Agronomia / Faculdade de Arquitetura / Instituto Superior Técnico. Universidade de Lisboa
Freshwater ecosystems are influenced by diverse anthropogenic stressors and natural disturbances producing interacting effects (synergies and antagonisms) often unpredicted based on their independent effects, and thereby represent a major concern to predict ecological changes and develop effective management and restoration strategies. The aim of this Thesis was to assess different responses of key stream biological elements (i.e., biofilms and macroinvertebrates) to the impact of main stressors acting in concert in Mediterranean rivers related with water scarcity and pollution (i.e., flow velocity reduction/stagnation and sewage contamination/hypoxia), using mesocosm approaches and evidences of a case study. In a first part, the effects of flow reduction and oxygen depletion conditions in two seasons were evaluated in macroinvertebrates behavioural and functional responses, conducting to evidences of changes in drift patterns and loss of trait diversity with potential impacts on ecosystem functioning and services. In a second part was investigated how single and combined effects of water flow stagnation and sewage contamination affect primary producers and primary consumers, showing that while stagnant water had an overall inhibitory effect, sewage inputs increased biological responses. Also, stressors combined effect revealed to be unfavourable for some biofilm assemblages (decreasing bacteria and algae diversity) while advantageous to other (increasing fungi diversity). In the last part, flow and water quality variations were followed over time in a Mediterranean urban stream, leading to observations of an impoverished community with low diversity and high abundance of tolerant taxa and resistance traits, which was associated with multiple-stressors patterns of urban ecosystems. Overall it was showed that the effects of representative multiple-stressor scenarios on Mediterranean stream biota are dependent on water scarcity conditions and that reductions on sewage inputs needs to be given priority by stream managers to prevent further degradation of these aquatic ecosystems
N/A

This thesis is an inquiry regarding the interconnections between water scarcity, geopolitics, resource management, and the strategies for developing effective ways to resolve conflict and encourage sustainable water resource use in developing countries. The ecological services of trans-boundary rivers are explored in conjunction with the potential impacts to freshwater availability due to economic modernization, water resource development, and decision making regimes that determine how water is allocated among competing users. Anthropogenic stressors that induce water scarcity and the geopolitical mechanisms of conflict are studied. A discourse on the creation and functional extent of global and localized water ethics is investigated, emphasizing the importance of perceptual dispositions of water users in understanding the value of trans-boundary river basins.

Purpose: The aim of this research is firstly to find out whether or not companies have strategies to address future scenarios of water scarcity. It is of importance to find out what they are doing to mitigate the issues they already have or will encounter in the future. Secondly, motivational drivers who have affected their decision-making are discussed in order to fully understand the process of working with water scarcity. Method: The qualitative research paper is based on five in-depth interviews with open-ended questions. The interviewee was able to explain the processes and strategic decision-making of the company. Follow-up questions were sent via email to complement these. Findings: The study declares that the majority of the companies had vague strategies to minimize water consumption and mitigate the issues they would encounter in a situation of water scarcity. They were more like visions or intentions. The motivational drivers and pressures companies have encountered and which have initiated the process and developing strategies were primarily the four following: (1) economic, (2) environmental, (3) social, and (4) impact from authorities.

The city of Dubai, which lies in the Middle East is, as many other cities in the area, suffering from shortage of fresh water resources. This issue is handled by desalination of sea water, which is a rather expensive procedure. Recently, the city tends to promote using hydrophobic sand in order to reduce irrigation water quantity and watering durations. Economically, this procedure has fewer costs than water desalination but concerns were raised regarding whether the chemical compounds, used in the treatment process of normal sand, impose any contamination risks for soil and groundwater. Due to the fact that normal sand has high permeability comparing to other types of soil, such as silt and clay, the rates of water seepage in normal sand is considerably high which results high water consumption in agriculture. One of the objectives of this thesis is to identify the most effective design for utilizing hydrophobic sand and normal sand layers to obtain the most suitable permeability rates for plantation purposes. Another objective is to discuss the probability of organic chemicals and heavy metals seepage when using the hydrophobic sand in soil; leaching tests were carried out to provide input to this discussion. The study showed that the hydrophobic sand has higher permeability than normal sand when it is saturated with water. However, it needs a considerably longer time in order to reach the saturation stage so recommendations were provided to use a separate layer of hydrophobic sand beneath the normal sand layer where vegetation is planted and avoid using sand mixtures. Based on the leaching tests’ results, it was also concluded that negligible concentrations of the organic silica compounds will be released into soil and ground water and the rates of heavy metals in leaching water were within the allowable limits. However, the possibility of the transformation of the organic compounds, used for normal sand treatment, into silica-free organic compounds was not discussed in this thesis. In other words, the usage of hydrophobic sand for agriculture purposes does not threaten the safety of neither soil nor groundwater concerning the leaching of the chemical compounds and metals that were tested in this study.

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2008.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The need for economic development is a pressing reality for many developing countries. Developing cities with a high urbanisation rate in water-scarce regions face tougher conditions in meeting their development targets according to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Creating a balance between water scarcity and the need for economic development is of the utmost importance if such regions are to grow. The City of Windhoek experienced this firsthand when Ramatex Textile was introduced. The Government of Namibia did everything in its power to secure Ramatex’s operation in Windhoek. Windhoek, however, is known for being a water-scarce area. This created competition amongst the different water users, and future establishments of such water-intensive factories became questionable. This research report studies the extreme case of Ramatex’s establishment and gives guidelines on future handling of such water-intensive establishments. The study also gives an example of how to make decisions using Multicriteria Decision Making tools, specifically the Analytical Hierarchy Process method using Ramatex’s information. The judgement values given in the MCDM process are fictitious and do not represent the true views of any of the stakeholders. The process was only conducted to demonstrate that such tools can be used to aid decision making. Surveys and workshops need to be conducted to solicit the true reflections of the stakeholders involved in any envisaged development projects.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die behoefte aan ekonomiese ontwikkeling is vir baie ontwikkelende lande ’n neerdrukkende realiteit. Ontwikkelende stede met ’n hoë verstedelikingskoers wat in waterskaars landstreke geleë is, kom voor groot uitdagings te staan om hul ekonomiese ontwikkelingsdoelwitte volgens die Millennium-ontwikkelingsdoelstellings te bereik. Die daarstelling van ’n balans tussen waterskaarste en die behoefte aan ekonomiese groei is van kardinale belang indien sulke stede wil groei. Windhoek, die hoofstad van Namibië het eerstehandse ondervinding hierin opgedoen met die opening van die Ramatex-tekstielfabriek. Die regering van Namibië het alles binne sy vermoë gedoen om die tekstielfabriek se bedrywighede in Windhoek te beskerm. Windhoek is egter bekend vir sy waterskaarste, wat tot mededinging tussen die verskillende waterverbruikers gelei het, en ook daartoe aanleiding gegee het dat toekomstige waterintensiewe ondernemings bevraagteken is. Hierdie navorsingsverslag ondersoek die besluit vir die oprigting van die Ramatex-tekstielfabriek en gee riglyne vir die toekomstige hantering van soortgelyke waterintensiewe ondernemings. Die studie gee ook ’n voorbeeld van die gebruik van multikriteria-besluitnemingsinstrumente om besluite te neem, met spesifieke verwysing na die analitiese hiërargieproses deur die gebruik van inligting aangaande Ramatex. Die beoordelende waardes in die multikriteriabesluitnemingsproses is denkbeeldig en verteenwoordig nie die ware standpunte van enige van die belanghebbendes nie. Die proses is bloot uitgevoer om aan te toon dat soortgelyke instrumente in toekomstige besluitneming gebruik kan word. Opnames en werksessies moet gehou word ten einde te verseker dat alle belanghebbendes se insette en menings aangaande toekomstige ontwikkelingsprojekte in ag geneem word.

The challenges of water governance in Chile today lie at the confluence of growing water demands, increasing climatic variability, and mounting discontent with neoliberal water policy. These these dynamics coalesce in the Maipo, Chile's most densely populated river basin and seat of the capital city, Santiago. The Maipo River sustains the growing capital city of Santiago, booming agricultural production in the Santiago valley, and hydroelectric generation from the river's swift descent from the Andes. Now, with the population of Santiago exceeding 5 million, a seventh year of drought racking central Chile, and controversial hydropower development sparking mass protests, the stakes of water governance in this critical river basin are higher than ever. Based on in-depth empirical research in the Maipo River basin, this thesis explores how processes of environmental and social change interact with Chile's internationally famous water laws to shape water governance, understood as the set of processes through which actors influence decision-making and conflict resolution related to water resources. Bringing legal geography and political ecology into conversation with water governance literature, I analyze the ways that law, social mobilization, and water scarcity are shaping water governance. In Chapter 1, I analyze the law of river sectioning and the way it influences water use and management practices throughout the Maipo River basin. Chapter 2 explores the Alto Maipo hydropower conflict in the upper basin and demonstrates the important role of social movement actors trying to shift water governance in new directions. Themes from both of these chapters converge in Chapter 3, which examines the struggle over the meaning of water scarcity in the context of increasing attention to drought and climate change. These dynamic socio-environmental processes are considered in relation to each other as integral parts of the ongoing negotiation of water governance. This research aims to insert considerations of social and environmental justice into ongoing policy debates about water governance in Chile to address the conflicts stemming from uneven access to resources and decision-making.

Access to reliable water and sanitation are two important goals to improve livelihoods around the world. Providing access to improved and safe water resources that are equitable and appropriate to local needs is important to improve sustainability long-term. In addition, framing access to water and sanitation as basic human rights is often used as a rationale in developing new water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in developing countries around the world. But not all countries consider access to safe water and sanitation as a human right. In the thesis, the politics of improving and investment in water access and sanitation provision are considered. The socio-cultural impacts of lack of sanitation in the lives of residents of Valparaiso de Goias, Brazil are explored. During a period of nine months, I also assessed perceptions of water scarcity and insecurity, and documented ideas of water reuse and sustainability in the area. I found that access to water and sanitation are not viewed as human rights, but as part of a discourse of citizenship and a social right. These services are viewed as a responsibility of the State to its residents because they are Brazilian and because it ensures improved livelihoods for the country’s residents. I also found that access to wastewater treatment infrastructure varied throughout the city, though treatment of wastewater remains very important to the study site community. In addition, the feasibility of implementing sustainable alternatives to address community needs is unlikely, given the infrastructural, financial, and space constraints. Political will and support have an important role in increasing and improving access to sanitation infrastructure. Perceptions of water scarcity varied between local residents and water service providers and other professionals interviewed. Though water is not perceived as scarce, Valparaiso and the Federal District of Brazil are located in a water stressed area, and are therefore more susceptible to water shortages and decreased water availability. Finally, community-based solutions to address water shortages should be included in the expansion of water reservoirs to collect rainwater, the usage of fines and bonuses to encourage appropriate water consumption.

A escolha acertada de um modelo de alocaÃÃo de Ãgua em perÃodos crÃticos ameniza o sofrimento causado pela ausÃncia de um bem tÃo precioso. Apesar da infraestrutura hÃdrica existente, o estado do Cearà vem sofrendo com os problemas causados pela estiagem. A metodologia de alocaÃÃo de Ãgua, sobretudo em perÃodos de escassez, precisa ser formatada e discutida com os agentes envolvidos nesse processo. Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo apresentar uma proposta de estratÃgia para alocaÃÃo de Ãgua, em perÃodo de escassez, para o Vale do Rio Curu, CearÃ, construÃda a partir da junÃÃo de dois mecanismos de alocaÃÃo: a formaÃÃo de consenso entre usuÃrios e instrumentos econÃmicos. à demonstrado, para isso, que o uso da Ãgua no Vale do Curu à predominante na atividade de irrigaÃÃo. Dessa forma, a estratÃgia proposta à composta por um sistema de prioridades de uso de Ãgua intrassetorial para irrigaÃÃo, com base na cobranÃa pelo uso da Ãgua variando em funÃÃo da garantia de longo prazo. Os recursos arrecadados com essa cobranÃa serÃo utilizados para pagamento de seguro e compensaÃÃo financeira, em anos secos, aos usuÃrios com garantia menores. A metodologia de alocaÃÃo proposta alcanÃou resultados satisfatÃrios quanto aos critÃrios de eficiÃncia econÃmica, legitimidade e sustentabilidade polÃtica, equidade, sustentabilidade financeira e capacidade de adaptaÃÃo. Para sua efetiva implantaÃÃo, foram sugeridas as medidas necessÃrias de controle, monitoramento e fiscalizaÃÃo do uso da Ãgua, alÃm da adequaÃÃo da legislaÃÃo vigente. A discussÃo e deliberaÃÃo pelo Comità de Bacia HidrogrÃfica do Rio Curu foi apresentada como premissa fundamental para efetivaÃÃo da metodologia proposta
The right choice of a model of water allocation in critical periods alleviates the suffering caused by the absence of so precious. Despite the existing water infrastructure, the state of Cearà has been suffering with the problems caused by drought. The methodology for allocation of water, especially in times of scarcity needs to be formatted and discussed with stakeholders in this process. This research aims to propose a strategy for allocating water in lean period for the River Valley Curu, CearÃ, built from the junction of two allocation mechanisms consensus building between users and economic instruments. It is shown that for this water use in Curu Valley is dominantly in the activity irrigation. Thus the proposed strategy consists of the definition of a system of priorities for the use of intra-sectoral water for irrigation from the payment of charges for water use varies depending on the long-term warranty. The funds raised from this collection will be used to pay insurance and financial compensation, in dry years, users with lower collateral. The proposed allocation methodology achieved satisfactory results regarding the criteria of economic efficiency, legitimacy and political sustainability, equity, financial sustainability and adaptability. For its effective implementation were suggested appropriate measures for monitoring, control and supervision of water use, the adequacy of current legislation. The discussion and deliberation by the committee River basin Curu was presented as a prerequisite for realization of the proposed methodology

Until recently climate change adaptation was not on the agenda of international climate negotiations. Only at the 7th Conference of the Parties in 2001 in Marrakech, the particular vulnerability of developing countries to climate change and the need for adaptation was recognised. At the COP 15 in 2009 in Copenhagen the importance of the private sector in funding adaptation projects was emphasised amid the global economic crisis and the public sector’s inability to finance adaptation projects alone. In the Middle East water scarcity presents one of the largest challenges of the future, worsened by climate change. This thesis highlights the importance of adaptation to climate change, with particular focus on the water sector in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, a country which has been identified as a prime example of an emerging economy and Middle Income Country with one of the lowest freshwater availabilities per capita in the world. Despite water scarcity, water usage and management is inefficient, levels of unaccounted-for-water are high and agriculture consumes around two thirds of water resources on extremely low tariffs. At the same time, Jordan’s economy has suffered considerably under the economic crisis, and as an emerging economy is not able to independently finance projects to improve water management and access to safe drinking water over the long term. Jordan will therefore be heavily dependent on foreign development aid as well as private sector investments. Consequently, Jordan was chosen by the author as it makes a good case study for analysis. The thesis aims to identify the drivers and barriers to private sector responses to water scarcity in Jordan and will produce a set of policy recommendations for attracting private sector capital to invest in, what has been identified as, adaptation technologies in a resource poor country. These guidelines will be useful to policymakers and private companies alike. The recommendations given herein provide a basis for enhancing private sector investments in the water sector in Jordan. Though they are specific to Jordan, these recommendations are valid and can be translated to other scenarios under which a Middle Income Country government aims to attract private sector finance for climate change adaptation projects provided that similar political, economic, cultural and environmental conditions prevail: 1. Eliminate corruption 2. Create long-term prospects for investors (especially under uncertainty about climate change and its effects) 3. Build confidence for investors 4. Develop a solid legislative framework and risk-sharing scheme 5. Adaptation makes business sense: open adaptation to climate change as a new market for innovation and investments 6. Achieve high levels of transparency in the award of projects and contracts 7. Develop a regulatory framework that defines the water consumption for agriculture (proportionate to GDP and available water resources) 8. Ensure consistency and coherence in policy-making. Avoid an implementation deficit 9. Frame a trend in climate that requires an adaptation strategy in the context of climate change.

La Mancha Plain lies in the core of Spain and partially stretches over the Guadiana River Upper Basin (UGB), is one of the most arid regions of the Iberian Peninsula, indeed “La Mancha” in Arabic means “the dry”, and also houses a vast Aquifer that has supported the related numerous marshlands and hydro-ecosystems in harmony with the human development till the 1970s, when the “Agrarian Green Revolution” commenced. Land reclamation over River and lagoon beds joined to the irrigation implementation of more than 150.000 Ha have badly bled the water resources to the maximum usable limit, lowering the phreatic table down to 60 meters, provoking a serious ecological damage for the 25.000 Ha of wetlands highly dependent on shallow phreatic levels. Recently, Nature granted the wettest period ever registered in the area (2009-2012) which caused an incredible natural replenishment of that Aquifer deficit. However, even though several costly plans and policies have been undertaken, it is still pending to effectively control the extractions, to manage the Aquifer within a portion allowing a certain continuous upwelling to enliven the Guadiana River real spring, and also, to adjust the essential agriculture sector to the environmental conditions and carrying capacity of the system.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc
The historical patterns of access to water and other areas of public service delivery in South Africa predominantly favoured the white minority. There was inadequate distribution of water where townships and rural areas bore the brunt of the apartheid administration. Women are disadvantaged within the household and carry the burden of providing water for their families. This is particularly true in a water stressed environment, such as the Ehlanzeni District Municipality in Mpumalanga. This study considered the practical application of the Capability Approach and its key idea of human well-being. In particular, the idea of the Capability Approach that social arrangements should aim to expand people‟s capabilities and their freedom to promote or achieve what they value doing or being was considered. Sen‟s ideas were assessed and the study considered how these ideas help understand collective action and strategies adopted by women to cope in the face of water stress and poverty. The thesis examined how community involvement, in particular women‟s involvement in a group called Vukani, impacts on water related issues and helps them to cope with external stressors. The study also considered the links between group belonging and capabilities. The findings suggest that group belonging cultivates a unique set of capabilities such as hope and empowerment. Due to group belonging and the capabilities attained through collective action, Vukani was able to develop adaptive strategies through innovation, partnerships and knowledge sharing.

Through studying the adoption of groundwater abstraction technology in the twentieth century in La Mancha, this research investigates the historical role of the state in the development of modern groundwater-fed irrigation in Spain between the 1940s and 1985. By focusing on the Mancha Occidental aquifer and the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetland, this study also scrutinizes how the adoption of groundwater abstraction technology led by the state fed back into the environment through ecosystem degradation and groundwater scarcity at the local and regional level. By examining the historical links between technology adoption, statecraft and ecological change, this study explores the different ways through which the state has taken a prominent role in producing groundwater-fed irrigation socio-ecologies. Additionally, it traces the socio-political mechanisms involved in the progressive desiccation of the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetland and its transformation into a burning dryland.

Water deficits are increasingly perceived as a threat to future global prosperity. Given current projections of population growth and economic development, the pressure over the water resource base coming from human abstraction would continue to expand including in regions currently dealing with water scarcity. The aim of this thesis is to determine the implications of demand-driven water deficits for economic development and food security by accounting for three major factors influencing future water demand – income, population and climate change. The first main contribution of this thesis consists in the advance of the current state-of-the-art in the macroeconomic modelling of freshwater use and the endogenous mechanisms of adaptation to water scarcity. The second contribution is the development of knowledge regarding the sector-specific impacts of water scarcity under different water allocation regimes. The analyses are carried out through a global Computable General Equilibrium model (RESCU-Water) which considers the heterogeneity of water uses across the economy. Due to the importance of irrigation in global withdrawals, an emphasis is made on crop systems through a bottom-up representation of irrigated and rainfed crop production. The findings show that the aggregate economic effects of water scarcity highly depend on the choice of the water allocation method, with important trade-offs between food security and GDP impacts. Next, although the demand for irrigation water is slowing down in the next decades, any water allocation regime based on differences in sectoral water productivities will have a significant impact on crop production notably on staple crops. In this context, the demand-driven water deficits become an additional constraint for crop systems and further amplify the negative effects of climate change on crop output.

Even though practical water resources planning and management has evolved greatly, there is still a mismatch between it and Integrated Water Resources Management. In light of the European Water Framework Directive and other European Policies related to water and sustainability, the Ecosystem Services assessment and Water Accounting methodologies have been identified as tools that can help approaching Integrated Water Resources Management. However, the existing methodologies are disconnected from the real requirements of water resources planning and management in complex river basins such as the ones suffering from water scarcity. The Water Accounting frameworks adopt a financial accounting perspective that is too exhaustive for the purpose of transmitting the relevant water stocks and flows for water managers and users in a river basin, and that entail less accuracy in the global water balance. Also, the analysed Ecosystem Assessment Tools overlook the influence of water management as well as the temporal and spatial variability of water resources and demands. This Thesis proposes methodologies for Water Accounting and Ecosystem Services Assessment which overcome the identified limitations and are especially adapted to be implemented in water scarce river basins. The Australian Water Accounting Standards are simplified to avoid exhaustive accounting for the sake of accuracy and transparency of water management information. An improved version is fully designed, and some criteria are proposed to guide its implementation at river basin scale with the purpose of improving public information and governance. A set of Integrated Water Resources Management Tools embedded in the Decision Support System AQUATOOL is tailored with economic information in order to obtain the benefits of three Freshwater Ecosystem Services considering the influence of water management with a detailed time step. The application of the resulting methodologies to different cases of study show the relevance of adopting a water management perspective in order to capture all the complexity of water scarce river basins in the results, so that they are useful for informed decision making. The Water Accounting results disclose synthesised and relevant information for water users and other stakeholders about the state of water resources and their allocation and supply during the analysed period. The Freshwater Ecosystem Services assessment results reveal helpful to classify water bodies or watersheds according to their capacity to provide environmental benefits, and to analyse the tradeoffs between the traditional water demands and the Ecosystem Services beneficiaries. Finally, the methodologies are put into context inside the Integrated Water Resources Management process that covers the target variables to consider, the tools that allow analysing the influence of management actions on them, the indicators that are more informative to water managers, and the ways to transmit the information to the general public. Furthermore, the types of analyses which can be conducted with the proposed methodologies are detailed, and illustrated with examples in scientific literature. The presented research is based on published work, which is expanded or detailed, and includes other non published material. The result is a Thesis that provides improved results and conclusions with respect to the stand-alone papers.
A pesar de que la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos ha evolucionado enormemente, existe todavía discordancia entre la misma y la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. A la luz de la Directiva Europea Marco del Agua y otras Políticas Europeas relacionadas con el agua y la sostenibilidad, la Contabilidad del Agua y la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas se han identificado como herramientas que pueden ayudar a aproximarse a la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. Sin embargo, las metodologías existentes actualmente están desconectadas de los requisitos reales de la planificación y gestión de los recursos hídricos en cuencas hidrográficas complejas como las que sufren de escasez hídrica. Los marcos de Contabilidad del Agua adoptan una perspectiva de contabilidad financiera que es demasiado exhaustiva para el propósito de transmitir información relevante sobre las reservas y flujos a los gestores y usuarios del agua en una cuenca, y conllevan menos precisión en el balance global de agua. Además, las herramientas analizadas para la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas pasan por alto la influencia de la gestión del agua así como la variabilidad temporal y espacial de los recursos hídricos y las demandas. Esta Tesis propone metodologías para la Contabilidad del Agua y la Evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas que superan estas limitaciones y que están especialmente adaptadas para su implementación en cuencas con escasez de agua. Los Estándares Australianos de Contabilidad del Agua se simplifican para evitar la contabilidad exhaustiva a favor de la precisión y la transparencia en la información sobre la gestión del agua. Se diseña una versión mejorada y se proponen algunos criterios para guiar su implementación a escala de cuenca con el propósito de mejorar la información pública y la gobernanza. Un conjunto de herramientas para la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que forman parte del Sistema Soporte a la Decisión AQUATOOL se une con información económica para obtener los beneficios generados por tres Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce considerando la influencia de la gestión del agua a una escala temporal detallada. La aplicación de las metodologías resultantes a distintos casos de estudio muestra la relevancia de adoptar una perspectiva de gestión del agua para capturar en los resultados la complejidad de las cuencas con escasez de agua, de modo que sean útiles para la toma de decisiones informadas. Los resultados de Contabilidad del Agua muestran información sintética y relevante para los usuarios del agua y otros actores interesados sobre el estado de los recursos hídricos, y su asignación y suministro durante el periodo analizado. Los resultados de la evaluación de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas de Agua Dulce se revelan útiles para clasificar las masas de agua o subcuencas de acuerdo con su capacidad para proporcionar beneficios ambientales y para analizar el equilibrio entre las demandas de agua tradicionales y los beneficiarios de los Servicios de los Ecosistemas. Finalmente, las metodologías se ponen en contexto dentro del proceso de Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos que abarca las variables objetivo a considerar, las herramientas que permiten analizar la influencia de las acciones de gestión sobre ellas, los indicadores más informativos para los gestores del agua, y los modos de transmitir la información al público en general. Además, se detallan e ilustran con ejemplos en la literatura científica los tipos de análisis que pueden llevarse a cabo mediante las metodologías propuestas. La investigación que se presenta está basada en trabajos publicados, que se expanden o detallan, e incluye material no publicado. El resultado es una Tesis que proporciona resultados y conclusiones mejorados respecto a los artículos independientes.
A pesar que la planificació i la gestió dels recursos hídrics ha evolucionat enormement, existeix encara discordancia entre aquesta i la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics. A la llum de la Directiva Europea Marc de l'Aigua i altres Polítiques Europees relacionades amb l'aigua i la sostenibilidad, la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes s'han identificat com a ferramentes que poden ajudar a aproximar-se a la Gestió Integrada de Recusos Hídrics. No obstant això, les metodologies existents actualment estan desconnectades dels requeriments reals de la planificació i gestió dels recursos hídricos en conques hidrogràfiques complexes com les que pateixen d'escassesa hídrica. Els marcs de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua adopten una perspectiva de Comptabilitat financera que és massa exhaustiva per al propòsit de transmetre informacó relevant sobre les reserves i fluxes als gestors i usuaris de l'aigua en una conca, i comporten menys precisió al balanç global de l'aigua. A més, les ferramentes analitzades per a l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes passen per alt la influència de la gestió de l'aigua així com la variabilitat temporal i espacial dels recursos hídrics i les demandes. Aquesta Tesi proposa metodologies per a la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua i l'Avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes que superen aquestes limitacions i que estan especialment adaptades per a la seua implementació en conques amb escassesa d'aigua. Els Estàndards Australians de Comptabilitat de l'Aigua es simplifiquen per evitar la comptabilitat exhaustiva a favor de la precisió i la transparència en la informació sobre la gestió de l'aigua. Es dissenya una versió millorada i es proposen alguns criteris per guiar la seua implementació a escala de conca amb el propòsit de millorar la informació pública i la governança. Un conjunt de ferramentes per a la Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que formen part del Sistema Suport a la Decisió AQUATOOL s'uneix amb informació econòmica per obtindre els beneficis generats per tres Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça considerant la influència de la gestió de l'aigua a una escala temporal detallada. L'aplicació de les metodologies resultants als distints casos d'estudi mostren la rellevància d'adoptar una perspectiva de gestió de l'aigua per capturar als resultats la complexitat de les conques amb escassesa d'aigua, de manera que siguen útils per a la presa de decisions informades. Els resultats de la Comptabilitat de l'Aigua mostren informació sintètica i rellevant per als usuaris i altres actors interessats sobre l'estat dels recursos hídric, i la seua assignació i subministrament al llarg del període analitzat. Els resultats de l'avaluació dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes d'Aigua Dolça es revelen útils per classificar les masses d'aigua o subconques d'acord amb la seua capacitat per proporcionar beneficis ambientals i per analitzar l'equilibri entre les demandes d'aigua tradicionals i els beneficiaris dels Serveis dels Ecosistemes. Finalment, les metodologies es posen en context dins del procés de Gestió Integrada de Recursos Hídrics que abarca les variables objectiu a considerar, les ferramentes que permeten analitzar la influència de les accions de gestió sobre elles, els indicadors més informatius per als gestors de l'aigua, i les maneres de transmetre la informació al públic en general. A més, es detallen i il¿lustren amb exemples en la literatura científica els tipus d'anàlisis que es poden portar a terme mitjançant les metodologies propostes. La investigació que es presenta està basada en treballs publicats, que s'expandeixen o detallen, i inclou material no publicat. El resultat és una Tesis que proporciona resultats i conclusions millorades respecte als articles independents.
Momblanch Benavent, A. (2016). Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Water Accounting Methodologies for Integrated Water Resources Management in water scarce basins [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/75523
TESIS

Severe storms can threaten the reliability and accessibility of drinking water supplies. The state of Florida is frequently impacted by hurricanes and is often struck more than once a year. An example of this can be found in 2017 when hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria caused much damage. Compromised utilities, well contamination, and shortages in bottled water and ice are just some of the problems that may threaten peoples’ drinking water. Faced with these issues, preparation and response efforts must be effective in order to promote human health. Recent events like Hurricane Irma caused shortages in potable water which suggest the need for improvements in these efforts. The purpose of this study was to review management policies (for both preparations and responses) in dealing with potable water paucity caused by Hurricane Irma. Current efforts for managing potable water supplies were researched across selected counties in Florida. The effectiveness and deficiencies of these policies were analyzed. A survey was utilized to gain an understanding of the effects of these policies from the people’s perspective. This study determined several issues with potable water management efforts in dealing with severe storms. These issues were: 1) Economic constraints preventing the obtainment of drinking water (particularly for the Hispanic ethnic group), 2) Lack of concern/care in keeping sanitary private well systems, 3) Policies to encourage locals to prepare to last three days without regular water supplies were inadequate since many people were left without water for far longer time periods, 4) Younger respondents experienced greater potable water shortages than the elderly, and 5) Many people who received emergency relief did not actually require aid. This study also identified potential improvements in both the short-term (emergency responses) and long-term (preparedness) management of drinking water in the face of hurricanes. Recommendations were made to address each of the found issues and ameliorate the management of potable water. These recommendations were: 1) To promote enforcement of anti-price gouging laws 2) Enhancing education on the importance of a sanitary well system. 3) Enhancing infrastructure and power by increasing redundancy, storage capacity, structural integrity, backup power and structural stability; and/or promote education informing locals to prepare for water shortages that last longer than three days 4) Encouraging younger residents to be more involved with their community elders 5) Relief efforts should be made more effective in reaching their targeted populations (those in true need of aid). The results of this research may be used to enhance potable water management plans to avoid suffering and loss of wellbeing in future hurricanes.

Fresh water has become more and more of a scarce commodity. Water scarcity isn't first and foremost a cause of drought and wasting, but a cause of inequality and mismanagement. This is not only a problem for developing countries, and there can also be variations within countries. The municipality of Gotland has a development program called Vision Gotland 2025, with goals for growth and sustainable development. The aim of this study is to examine whether the use and management of water resources on Gotland and Vision Gotland 2025 is conformed to the Water Framework Directive and the Ecosystem Approach in terms of sustainability. Focus is on the quantitative aspects of water supply. The study has mainly been done by studying publications from the authorities concerned. Although annual precipitation in general is enough to provide fresh water for the population, water shortage occurs in some areas during the summers. Three of the four main catchment areas on Gotland have unsatisfactory quantitative status, and is likely to have so also when the time limit of the next evaluation is due in 2015. Since both the population and tourism is presumed to increase, according to Vision Gotland 2025, the conclusion drawn is that the use of water resources is not sustainable, even though the management per se does conform to the ecosystem approach.

Thesis: S.M. in Technology and Policy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, School of Engineering, Institute for Data, Systems, and Society, Technology and Policy Program, 2018.
Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2018.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 108-119).
The objective of this project is to improve the responsiveness of District Planning to rural water scarcity in India. Through engagements with the Groundwater Survey Development Agency, and Maharashtra State Government Water Supply and Sanitation Department, we selected Aurangabad District to conduct field visits and develop a model that can spatially represent risk of villages to water scarcity. Within Aurangabad District, Vaijapur block was selected as a case study due to its drought effects and high water tanker usage in the past five years. This thesis develops a disaster risk metric for water scarcity, using an analysis of potential hazards, socioeconomic vulnerability, and policy responses to assign a "disaster risk score" to each village. Risk is seen as a function of hazard, vulnerability, and government capacity, so all three factors of risk are addressed. Villages are assigned a risk score in Vaijapur block of Aurangabad District By providing a risk score a season in advance of drought, planners are able to select an alternative capacity measures rather than the quickest tanker option. The aim of this research is to assist district governments in Maharashtra state in predicting, between one season to two years in advance, the risk of villages to drinking water scarcity in order to respond before incurring a drinking water crisis. Secondly, this model is used to prioritize infrastructure projects over the coming two years in order to best use limited financial resources to alleviate the burden of water scarcity at the village level. This research could ultimately be integrated into the existing state website for statewide planning and allocation of resources.
by Paige K. Midstokke.
S.M. in Technology and Policy
S.M.

Thesis advisor: David Hollenbach
More than one billion people do not have access to an adequate water supply and several billion lack access to basic sanitation, which is the number one cause of diseases linked to water and water contamination. In countries such as Gambia and Haiti, people live on less than 4 liters of water per day. Cholera and dysentery, two of the more deadly water-related diseases, claim around 10 million victims each year, primarily among young children and the elderly; sadly, these diseases are easily preventable. Certain areas of the world are running out of fresh water at an alarming rate, and the global distribution of water is making it increasingly more difficult for poor people to access it. Movements to commodify water and privatize the industries that provide it are, in many cases, exacerbating this situation of scarcity and trapping poor people in a cycle of water poverty. While much research has been done on the problem of water scarcity, there is currently a void in this undertaking regarding the link between scarcity and water as a human right. Therefore, this paper seeks to address the question of whether there exists a human right to water and, if so, what obligations that entails for major market actors, such as: state governments; water corporations; and international lending institutions
Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2004
Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences
Discipline: International Studies
Discipline: College Honors Program

Due to the extreme climate change, air and water pollution, environmental issues have become a global problem. In recent years Taiwan, despite being the country with the highest rate of precipitation of any developed country in the world, has faced a severe water crisis which is expected to worsen in the 21st century. To enable the sustainable use of water resources, the Water Resources Agency has established guidelines of water resources management in terms of allocation of water resources, improvement of water use efficiency, and saving water. However, official data regarding suggest that these efforts are not reflected in an increased environmental awareness in society. This study aims at investigating Taiwanese students’ environmental awareness, this one intended as a measure of a person’s ability to understand the nature of environmental problems and the existing cause-effect relationship with human activities. We focus on the three dimensions of awareness: i.e. environmental perception, attitude, and behavior towards environmental issues, with particular reference to water scarcity-related problems. This study utilized a questionnaire distributed among 200 students in Hsinchu, a city in northern Taiwan with the second highest per capita daily tap water consumption. Overall, respondents show relatively high levels of awareness and a positive attitude toward the environment. However, despite being for the most part aware of water scarcity on the island, the students in the sample are not concerned by it and deem other issues to be of greatest importance. The main results also indicate that young people in Taiwan are very prone to change and willing to engage in environmental protection behaviors, a major resource that the government should make full use of in order to tackle the issues of water scarcity affecting the island.

Mestrado em Engenharia do Ambiente - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The growing world population and industrial development has led to an increased pressure on natural resources. To control this situation, it was necessary to promote measures towards a more efficient use of resources. We all know the importance that water has in life, and therefore the concern with the management of this resource has increased. Legislative framework regarding industrial wastewater discharge became more stringent, with the goal of improving quality of water bodies. For this reason, many industries chose to build wastewater treatments plants reusing the treated wastewater. Besides the concern about water scarcity, pressure on all other resources used in the production of goods we use daily also increased. To reuse and/or recycle a product, not only avoids GHG emissions related to the production of a new product, but also avoids GHG emissions associated with waste landfill. In this work the environmental performance of a metallomechanics industrial plant was assessed, proposing improvements, short-term and medium/long term, to the production process, to the water/wastewater management and to the waste management

Includes abstract.
Includes bibliographical references.
In 2009, severe water scarcity in the Eden District resulted in seven municipalities being declared "drought zones". This was largely attributed to the lowest rainfall recorded in 132 years and widely recognised as a climate changed problem (SABC News, 2009). The Eden District administrative centre, the municipality of George, was also identified as significantly drought affected with water storage declining in the Garden Route Dam to 26.8% of Full Capacity Storage (Department of Water Affairs, 2010). The declaration of the drought emergency in South Africa's Eden District in 2009 illustrates the increasing episodes of urban water scarcity in rapidly growing urban centres in Africa that are also exposed to climate variability. Specifically this study sought to investigate the atmospheric and human-induced risk drivers that contributed to the acute urban water scarcity in the George Municipality from 2009-2010.

In a situation where population growth and development is to be sustained throughnaturally limited water resources, something needs to be done to either render waterusage more effective or make more water available. This is the situation in Bangalore Urban District (BUD), an ever growing city lying far from perennial water sources. This thesis presents the water situation in BUD, and aims to analyze the current status of water resources on multiple levels in BUD. Further the aim is to look at people‘s attitudes towards water scarcity. The methods used are literature studies and semistructured interviews. The study shows that there is a lack of water in relation to the population on basin level, creating the perquisites for water scarcity. Even so, the water stress on city level does not seem to be a direct effect off the water scarcity on basin level, but rather a result of inefficient governance and inadequate infrastructure. This means that to solve the issue, the governing entities in BUD must firstly look at improving the situation on city level rather than focusing on Water Supply Managementon basin level. The perception of this problem varies among people in BUD, and the perception of water stress in relation to the most favorable incentives to care which are a combination of personal and common good incentives, can affect household‘s water behavior. The significance of these results is that people‘s attitudes towards water resources will affect how they handle and use water. Through further research this knowledge can be vital to understanding how to achieve behavioral changes that can lover usage in a growing city like Bangalore.

Thesis: M.C.P., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, 2018.
Thesis: S.M., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Architecture, 2018.
"June 2018." Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 97-101).
Scarcity is relative, as water resources can be mismanaged, shared inequitably and allocated asymmetrically. Half a billion people live under conditions of severe water scarcity in many arid and semi-arid regions, marked by an increasing demand for water and unprecedented droughts.' The Jordan River basin, a peri-urban regional corridor, is in a particularly water-stressed region with worldwide lows in per capita water availability that is projected to decrease further by 20 percent by 2050.2 Both the valley's communities, especially smallholders, and fragile habitats of the watershed will be hard hit by the impact of a drying climate. The collapse of Jordan River, which has seen its flow reduced to a small fragment, and decline of the Dead Sea downstream are flagged as ecological disasters. However, beyond being merely a physical constraint or a supply issue, the problem of scarcity is also shaped by the politics of allocation. Through layers of geospatial data, from archival maps, surveys and remote sensing data, I show how the history of land resettlement, water allocation and infrastructural development can complicate restoration efforts today. The Regional NGO Master Plan, drafted by experts from Israel, Jordan and Palestine, makes the case for the need to rehabilitate Jordan River by allocating 400 MCM, a third of pre-modern levels, as the required inflow for restoration. I argue that restoring the river goes beyond direct flows and should be defined to include critical ecosystems that affect the hydrological cycle of the entire basin, including buffer systems and conservation reserves that support local communities. In the absence of fair reallocation mechanisms and regional design at the scale of the watershed, a roadmap to establishing common environmental flows is infeasible. Rather than offering a utopian vision for the rehabilitation of Jordan River, as an addendum to the masterplan, I develop six geospatial propositions in defense of establishing environmental flows in contexts of scarcity.
by Sera Tolgay.
M.C.P.
S.M.

Pervasive social and ecological water crises in Mexico remain, despite over two decades of legal and institutional backing for Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a policy tenet. In this article we apply a socialshed analysis to uncover and understand the geographical and jurisdictional forces influencing the social construction and simultaneous fragmentation of the San Miguel Watershed (SMW) in the state of Sonora, in Mexico's water-scarcity bulls-eye. Specific insights derived from an empirical analysis include that water management (WM) is socially embedded in dense networks of family and friends, farmers and ranchers, citizens and local government - all to varying degrees sharing information about local water crises. Irrigation water user representatives (WUR) are connected across communities and within their own municipalities, but interwatershed social links with other WUR are virtually nonexistent, despite high levels of awareness of crossmunicipality WM problems. Implementation of IWRM as a federal policy by a single agency and the creation of basin councils and subsidiary technical committees for groundwater management have not been sufficient for technical - much less social - integration at the watershed level. This study shows that the SMW socialshed remains fragmented by local jurisdictions; without coordinated agency-jurisdiction-local action fomenting social connections, a socialshed will not emerge.

Botswana's population and water demand are growing at a high rate particularly in the dry south eastern part of the country. In 1999, a Water Conservation Policy and Strategy framework document was formulated to guide a transition from a supply driven water management approach to water demand management. This study investigated whether there was a disparity between the framework policy and strategy recommendations and their actual implementation.

Reduced water availability and salinity are two major environmental factors influencing crop establishment in semi-arid environments. Therefore the effect of reduced water availability using polyethylene glycol (PEG) 4000 solutions and of salinity (NaCl) on the germination of six soybean cultivars was examined. Cultivars differed in their response to reduced water availability and salinity and in their ability to recover from the stresses. A large increase in germination during a recovery period at 0 MPa following water stress suggested that PEG was not toxic whilst the failure of seeds to recover from high salinity revealed the toxic effects of NaCl. At the same water potential, germination in saline conditions was higher than that in PEG and the rate of water uptake by individual seeds was more rapid in NaCl solutions than in PEG. The most plausible explanation for the greater water uptake and germination in NaCl is that seeds accumulated salts which lowered their osmotic potential. The effects of NaCl on seedling growth were much greater when experiments were conducted in a hydroponic system compared with a paper towel method. However, analysis of the solutions soaking the paper towels revealed that 4.25 mMolal Ca2⁺ was available to the seeds in this system in saline conditions. This may have reduced Na⁺ uptake or provided a protective effect against Na⁺ toxicity. Germination (40%) was possible at a tissue Na⁺ concentration in the embryonic axis of 9.3mg g-1 FW whilst seedling growth was completely inhibited at a tissue Na⁺ concentration of 6.1 mg g^-1 FW. Germination at higher tissue Na⁺ concentrations was associated with higher K⁺+Ca2⁺ concentrations, suggesting that these ions may protect the seeds in the pregermination phase against salinity. A reduction in seed vigour due to ageing resulted in reduced germination under saline conditions compared to the germination of unaged seeds, but there was no significant interaction between salinity and seed ageing. However, unaged seeds showed a greater increase in germination after transfer to 0 MPa than did the aged seeds. Since both the site of ageing and the toxic effect of NaCl is the cell membrane, there may be additive effects of NaCl toxicity on cell membrane in aged seeds.

The Southern And Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SEARNET) seeks to promote rainwater harvesting as a risk reduction strategy and means to improve livelihoods through its member national rainwater harvesting associations. SEARNET is an important channel of international donor funding from the Swedish and Dutch governments, and exists to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and experiences of rainwater harvesting through networking. To identify the environmental and organisational issues affecting SEARNET, a questionnaire was sent to SEARNET members that asked open-ended questions about the value of rainwater harvesting to their country and the value of SEARNET to their association. Respondents raised issues that were pertinent to both their association and to SEARNET. Issues were also identified in a survey of Annual Country Status Reports (country reports) presented by national rainwater harvesting associations at the annual SEARNET conferences. Issues included water scarcity and sustainable water supplies; registration as a barrier to funding; a mismatch between donor funding and institutional requirements; and the need for better networking at the SEARNET conference. Several recommendations are made to improve both the promotion of rainwater harvesting by SEARNET members and the networking of SEARNET itself.

Water scarcity is a problem that will be exacerbated by climate change. Being able to model the effect of climate change on water scarcity is important to effectively plan the use of future water resources. This research integrated the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), climate model, and water footprint analysis to measure the impact of climate change on future water scarcity. This was achieved through two objectives. The first objective was to create a modeling framework that links the output from climate model to SWAT and combined streamflow outputs from SWAT with water footprint analysis to measure how climate change will impact water scarcity of a river basin. This was accomplished through creating a SWAT model within ArcMap and inputting a topographic, soil, land use, and weather data. Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) data were used in lieu of observed weather data due to a lack of available data. SWAT-CUP (Calibration and Uncertainty Program) was used to calibrate two upstream streamflow gauges, then calibrate and validate a third streamflow gauge at the outlet of the Senqu basin in Lesotho. The two upstream streamflow gauges were calibrated from 1986 to 2002. The downstream streamflow gauge was calibrated from 1985 to 2002 and validated from 2003 to 2013. Three Regional Climate Models (RCM), ICHEC-EC-EARTH, MIROC-MIROC5, and CCCma-CanESM2 were downloaded from the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) dataset. Each RCM was downloaded with two different Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP), RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The RCMs were bias corrected using a cumulative distribution function mapping technique. These RCMs as well as an average of the RCMs were used as input for the SWAT model to generate future streamflow outputs. The streamflow outputs provide the future blue water availability of the Senqu River. The results showed an overall decrease in streamflow in both RCPs. The second objective was to apply the framework to Lesotho and use the information from the ArcSWAT model and data from the Blue Water Footprint analysis to measure the future potential Blue Water Scarcity of Lesotho. This was accomplished through the Blue Water Footprint of Lesotho generated from the 5th National Blue Footprint analysis. The annual blue water scarcity was calculated as the ratio of the Blue Water Available to Blue Water Footprint. Three approaches were adopted to analyze the water scarcity of Lesotho. The first approach used the national Blue Water Footprint in the water scarcity calculation to investigate the worst-case scenario. The second approach used the modified blue water footprint based on the population living within the Senqu river basin. The third approach used a modified blue water footprint that accounted for the projected population growth of Lesotho. The results of scenario 1 showed there was moderate water scarcity in a period of four years in climate scenario of RCP8.5. The results of scenario 3 showed there were multiple cases of water scarcity in both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 with two years of severe water scarcity. This research is limited by data availability and the results for Lesotho could be improved by accurate dam data and the fine scale water footprint analysis. The modeling framework integrating climate model, hydrology, and water footprint analysis, however, can be applied to other remote places where limited data are available.