Academic literature on the topic 'Water use – Zimbabwe'

Only 40% of Zimbabwe’s population has access to electricity. The greater proportion of the power is generated from thermal stations, with some from hydro and solar energy sources. However, there is little investment in the use of wind for electricity generation except for small installations in the Eastern Highlands, as Zimbabwe generally has wind speeds which are too low to be utilised for electricity generation. This paper presents the use of vertical wind profile extrapolation methods to determine the potential of generating electricity from wind at different hub heights in Zimbabwe, using the Hellman and exponential laws to estimate wind speeds. The estimated wind speeds are used to determine the potential of generating electricity from wind. Mangwe district in Matabeleland South province of Zimbabwe was used as a test site. Online weather datasets were used to estimate the wind speeds. The investigation shows that a 2.5kW wind turbine installation in Mangwe can generate more than 3MWh of energy per annum at hub heights above 40m, which is enough to supply power to a typical Zimbabwean rural village. This result will encourage investment in the use of wind to generate electricity in Zimbabwe. Highlights Wind power utilisation is low in Zimbabwe. Vertical wind profile is estimated using extrapolation methods. Online weather data for soil and water analysis tool was used. Electricity can viably be generated from wind in Zimbabwe.

The study was carried out to analyse the potential use of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) in water infrastructural development in Harare City Council, Zimbabwe. PPPs play a pivotal role in water infrastructural development if fully implemented. Zimbabwe’s rate of uptake is low. There are preconditions that are necessary for successful implementation of PPPs inter alia political will (commitment) legal, institutional and political frameworks. Key informant interviews and documentary search were employed to gather data. The study established that Zimbabwe does not have the preconditions necessary for successful implementation of PPPs and this confirms the thesis. The main challenges include lack of legal and institutional framework, lack of political will, unconducive socio-economic environment. Zimbabwe’s water infrastructure is ramshackle. This is compounded by lack of fiscal space on the part of government to rehabilitate the infrastructure. PPPs could be a viable alternative to infrastructural development with the right environmental conditions. The study recommends that the government should quickly enact a PPP legal framework that enables the establishment of a PPP unit within the Ministry of Finance and this should be followed by an Act of Parliament which should institutionalize PPPs. The Government should promote a conducive investment climate.

Abstract This paper interrogates indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) based climate governance in water and land resource management in under-resourced areas of Zimbabwe. Water and land resources are fundamental for smallholder farmers and their productivity. The concept of IKS plays a significant role in climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe's rural communities. Climate change has a considerable influence on the success of agricultural production in the rural communities of Zimbabwe. Hence, it becomes fundamental to assess the community-based methods of climate governance. Qualitative multiple case study exploratory designs were employed with data collected through individual interviews with smallholder farmers, and thematic content analysis was used to analyse data. This study found that enhancing and embracing IKS is of paramount importance for inclusion in local-level strategies in the development process with special reference to climate governance in water and land resource management, particularly in under-resourced communities. It also established that the use of IKS enhances communities' adaptive capacity and it should not be conducted at the expense of scientific methods but rather should be employed in order to complement the existing scientific global knowledge systems.

Abstract This essay counters the growing tendency in current scholarship to attribute nearly all the enduring water scarcity problems to climate change. Focusing on Harare, Zimbabwe's capital city, this essay contends that recurrent water crises can only really be understood within the contentious, long, and complex history of water politics in the capital city from the colonial to the postcolonial period. Although the colonial and postcolonial states in Zimbabwe had very different ideological and racial policies, for various reasons, neither was willing nor able to provide adequate supplies of water to the urban poor even as water was abundant in the city's reservoirs. It posits that while the colonial government racialized access to water by restricting its use by urban Africans, the postcolonial government failed to change the colonial patterns of urban water distribution and did little to increase water supplies to keep pace with a swiftly growing urban population and a geographically expanding city.

Magister Public Health - MPH
There is growing awareness that drinking water can become contaminated following its collection from safe communal sources such as boreholes, as well as during transportation and storage in the house. Drinking water is the most important source of gastroentric diseases worldwide, mainly due to post collection contamination of drinking water. Globally, waterborne diseases are a major public health problem, causing millions of deaths annually. Aim: To determine the association between household drinking water handling practices and bacteriological quality of drinking water at the point-of-use in the rural communities of Murewa district in Zimbabwe.

PhDRDV
Institute for Rural Development
Throughout the world, irrigation is appreciated because of its immense contribution to agricultural production, food and nutrition security, combating poverty and enhancing development, especially in rural areas. The worsening effects of climate change on rainfall patterns as well as food and nutrition insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa are elevating the importance of irrigation schemes in smallholder farming. However, studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the performance of irrigation schemes remains suboptimal. In addition, the studies are highly skewed towards technical and physical dimensions of the schemes and ignore social aspects such as gender. Consideration of gender imperatives would help define and structure who uses water, when and how. This situation necessitated carrying out the PhD thesis research, aiming to explore and explain inherent gender dynamics in water use and management. The ultimate aim was to propose intervention strategies anchored on differential gender power dynamics embedded in irrigation water use in smallholder irrigation schemes. Specific objectives adopted for the study of the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe were to: 1) assess the gendered nature of irrigation water use; 2) determine the gendered nature and extent of participation of male and female members of the irrigation scheme in water management; 3) identify the gendered challenges and constraints to irrigation water use; and 4) propose strategies for improved access and management of water. An exploratory sequentially integrated mixed method research design was used in the two phased PhD studies. Seventy three farmers (26 men and 47 women) were the respondents in the first phase in which qualitative data were collected. The gender analysis matrix and activity profile were used to gather and document the perceptions of men and women farmers relating to use of irrigation water. One hundred and nine conveniently sampled respondents (47 men and 62 women) were the source of data in the second phase of the study, which was quantitative and confirmatory in nature. A questionnaire, requiring responses on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to collect data. Qualitative data collected during the exploratory phase were analysed using the Cresswell (2013) Thematic Content Analysis technique. Pair-wise ranking was conducted to determine the major constraints to access, use and management of irrigation water. The Predictive Analytics Software Statistics 18 for Windows (PASW Inc: Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyse quantitative data. Gender, age, marital status, location of irrigation plot, plot ownership and level of education were the independent variables used. Dependent variables included nature of water use, participation in water management and constraints to water use. Cross-tabulation was carried out and the iii Pearson’s Chi-square test for association used to establish if relationships existed between variables. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. The Cramer’s V post-hoc test was performed to measure the strength of association of the perceptions which the Chi-square test had determined to be significantly different. The uses of canal water were found to be varied and gendered. More women than men used canal water for reproductive purposes such as laundry and bathing. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed among gender, age, marital status, ownership of irrigation plot and level of education with use of irrigation water for laundry, bathing, livestock watering and other communal uses. However, location of plot was not associated with different types of water uses (P > 0.05). With respect to farmers’ participation in meetings, contributing in meetings, repair of canals, provision of labour in canal maintenance, hiring labour for canal maintenance and contributing cash for canal repairs and maintenance, highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed with gender, age, marital status, level of education, and ownership and location of irrigation plot. Level of education of the farmer was observed to be not associated with his/her attendance of meetings (P > 0.05). Plot location was negatively associated with participation, provision of labour for maintenance, contribution of cash and hiring labour for canal repairs (P > 0.05). Exorbitant payments for using water were regarded as the major constraint to performance of the smallholder irrigation scheme. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed between gender and plot location, and all the constraints to water use that the farmers identified. The constraints ranged from unequal water distribution between and within men and women, and upstream and downstream farmers; unfriendly water delivery times; conflicts and corrupt practices in water distribution; and discrimination with respect to schedules of delivering water. Overall, gender imbalance in the use and management of irrigation water existed. This was evident in the disparities in uses and users of canal water that followed gender and social lines. Men dominated decision making in water management, especially in meetings. In contrast, women dominated in implementation stages mainly in relation to provision of labour for cleaning and maintaining water canals. Considering all the results obtained in the current study, it can be concluded that a combination of socio-economic and socio-cultural factors caused the water problems that the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme experienced. The need for introducing gender-sensitive interventions in use and management of irrigation water was evident. Thus, gender needs, roles and responsibilities should be reconceptualised so as to align them with the socio-cultural context of the Nyanyadzi community. In addition to this, the fact that both men and women iv are not homogeneous interest groups should be factored into irrigation water management. Lastly, it is crucial to incorporate various social hierarchies that interact with gender to influence irrigation water use and management. How this can be done deserves further scientific investigation.
NRF

The study investigates the contribution of WDM towards mitigating scarcity of potable water in cities with particular reference to Bulawayo.WDM origins and its successes are traced. The study classifies scarcity representations into four categories and reveals that the scarcity in Bulawayo satisfies all the four representations hence calls it total scarcity. The research employed document study, questionnaires, interviews and a focus group to collect data. Document study revealed that water restrictions successfully mitigate the scarcity in Bulawayo. Field work partially confirmed the usefulness of WDM in the life of the city and revealed the need to synchronize the conceptualizations of WDM among different stakeholders in order for the paradigm to do even more in terms of mitigating scarcity. The results were interpreted in terms of TPB. The key recommendation of the study is that the city invests in water use behaviour change in order to realise huge water savings.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development Studies)

Wetlands are fragile ecosystems that deliver a wide range of environmental and ecosystem services that contribute to human well-being. This fragility has seen a number of wetlands succumb to degradations and loss arising from different causes. The positive contribution of wetlands to various ecosystems and the increasing rate of their degradation and loss has been a cause for concern to different stakeholders for a long time. One of the landmark indications of this concern is the constitution of the Ramsar Convention that was held in Iran in 1971 with the objective of addressing concerns regarding to wetland degradation and loss. Among the competing land uses resulting in wetlands loss and degradation could be listed urban agriculture, industrial development and housing. The research sought to assess the extent of wetland degradation with respect to housing developments in Harare, Zimbabwe. The dilemma as to why and how wetlands were being degraded was an issue of concern. The research sought to determine whether abatement or mitigation measures were in place to address the challenges Associated with wetlands loss and degradation. The subsequent growth of developments, their associated activities and possible intervention measures had to be thoroughly assessed. The administration of questionnaires and conducting of interviews was done to solicit data from the respondents. Collected data was analyzed through the Statistical Package for Social Scientists. Further to this, Google satellite imagery was used in the mapping of the Belvedere North and Epworth suburbs. Disturbed and undisturbed portions of the wetlands were analyzed by Geographical Information System software. Direct observation of the wetland area was used to examine existing natural features. To determine extent of pollution, water samples were collected in the wetlands and submitted to the laboratory for analysis. Analysis of selected chemical and physical parameters was carried out in the laboratory using selected methods. The research made two important and broad findings. First, both the Belvedere North and Epworth wetlands have been severely degraded by anthropogenic activities with housing developments and urban agriculture as the major contributors of this degradation. The development of residential properties in the wetlands is a result of a high demand for residential space in Harare. Whereas housing developments in Belvedere are formal and planned, developments in Epworth were informal and haphazard. With no formal planning, the Epworth wetlands have been severely impacted by water and sand extraction as well as contamination of underground water by pit-latrines that are common in these informal settlements. Second, the research also found that wetland degradation was closely associated with the lack of clear wetland policies both at national and local levels. The laboratory results showed that the water in Epworth was more polluted than the water in Belvedere. The measure of pollutants in Epworth was higher due to the activities being carried out as compared to Belvedere. Measures of Dissolved Oxygen, Total Dissolved Substances and conductivity increased from October to March in Epworth. Of note is the measure of Dissolved Oxygen that increased between October and March with a mean of 7.9 and 2.5 respectively. Total nitrogen and total phosphate also increased significantly in midstream and downstream sections. In essence, averages of 0.01 in October and 0.04 in March were recorded respectively for total nitrogen. The study concludes that an integrated land use approach has the potential of minimizing wetland loss and degradation. This is possible through the formulation and implementation of a comprehensive policy involving all relevant stakeholders. This will ensure a coherent decision making process. In as much as integrated land use planning and policy formulation are potential approaches to wetland sustainability, the drive to implement policy by policy makers concerning wetlands has to be explored. As ignorance concerning the ecological importance of wetlands exists in some cases, it is critical to consider wetland benefits above other competing developments such as housing and urban agriculture. This can be achieved through merging interrelated disciplines with the idea of integrating wetland information. For instance, deriving engineering solutions could promote development yet preserving wetlands. It is also suggested that environmental impact assessments, as planning tools should be carried out simultaneously with the town planning aspect. If given to proper planning, wetlands have a huge chance of survival.
Environmental Sciences
M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

This thesis explores questions of gender equality in social welfare theory; methodologies; approaches and policymaking in the Global South in the context of land reforms. This stems from the realisation that gender equality issues in social welfare are increasingly receiving greater attention in the context of the Global North and less in the South. By adopting a Transformative Social Policy framework, the research departs from hegemonic livelihoods, poverty reduction and the ‘classical models’ of land reforms often designed from the mould of the neoliberal discourse of individual tenure to focus on land reform as a relational question. Empirical data was gathered using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach involving survey questionnaires; in-depths interviews; focus group discussions; key informant interviews and field observations. A total of 105 randomly selected households, comprising 56 male-headed households (MHHs) and 49 female-headed households (FHHs) participated in the quantitative component of the study, comprising a control group of nonland reform beneficiaries. Additionally, 30 purposively selected in-depths interviews comprising 20 FHHs and 10 MHHs were conducted in resettlement study sites. Findings from this this study indicates that despite the country’s depressed economic environment and the effects of climate change, transfer of land enhanced the productive capacities of individuals and rural households, including those headed by females. At micro-level, in-kind transfer of land to rural households proved to be a more superior social protection measure compared to either food or cash transfer. However, social relations and institutions proved resistant to change, posing a greater obstacle to social transformation. And more importantly, from a social reproductive perspective, the same land reform that enhanced the productive capacities of women, inadvertently, increased their social reproductive work with implications on the welfare of women relative to men. The thesis makes a contribution to social policy debates in Africa, which hitherto have been dominated by the introduction of cash transfers as witnessed in many countries across the continent. The transformative social policy approach brings novelty to the study of land reforms. By Conceptualising gender as a relational and social construct, the study adds knowledge on the nexus between gender, land reform and welfare using the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) as reference. With the FTLRP––as a leftist policy in a liberalised economy––there is a need for the government to re-align its social and economic policies to avoid inconsistencies in the country’s development path. On the gender front there is need to legislate resettlement areas as outside the jurisdiction of traditional structures; promulgate statutory instruments dealing with land and setting up designated land claims courts linked right up to the Constitutional Court. Specifically, for Chiredzi, there is a need to establish a corporate body to administer the affairs of Mkwasine following the pulling out of the Estate. Keywords: gender, land reforms, water reforms, transformative
Sociology
Ph. D. (Sociology)

Increasing frequency and severity of droughts and floods, shift in onset and cessation of the rainfall and increasing intensity of mid-season dry spells in the last 50 years have been identified in Zimbabwe. This paper presents an assessment of risks from climate change to the horticulture sector of Zimbabwe with the aim to provide mitigatory actions that could alleviate climate change risks in the horticultural sector of Zimbabwe. Specifically the chapter seeks to outline the climate change risks facing the horticulture sector in Zimbabwe, propose actions to reduce risks and assess financing and policy options for climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe. The study followed the approach taken by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) which analyses climate risks at each stage of the horticulture value chain. The stages used by Vermeulen are input supplies (seeds, fertilisers, pest management, etc.,); agricultural production (water use, soil management, skill base, etc.,) and postproduction processes (storage, processing, transport, retail, etc.,). Data was collected from multiple stakeholders in areas with notable horticultural production across Zimbabwe using semi-structured interview guides. The study population composed of horticulture farmers, produce processing firms, value chain support organisations and government arms related to horticulture.

A few years into Zimbabwe’s independence, there were disturbances in the Midlands and Matabeleland provinces, resulting in the massacre of about 20,000 unarmed civilians in what has become known as the Gukurahundi. The atrocities ended with the signing of the Unity Accord in 1987. The government has, however, refused any culpability in the matter and has muted dialogue around the issue. To explore ways of speaking about the Gukurahundi issue and of aiding the grieving process for the second-generation sufferers of the Gukurahundi, I worked with a group of young people to devise and stage theatre on this emotive subject. This chapter reports and reflects on the activities involved in devising and staging Speak Out! phase one and phase two plays. It also identifies and discusses challenges and opportunities that lie in using theatre to create democratic spaces within silencing and oppressive structures. The chapter is framed within decoloniality theory as envisioned by Walter Mignolo. I argue that devised theatre is rich with potential to create democratic spaces that can give a platform for telling stories of pain and suffering when the mainstream media and channels are closed for such. I observe that techniques such as improvisation, storytelling and use of songs, when deployed during the devising process, assisted in creating a social and aesthetic space to speak about the Gukurahundi issues, creating a potential for helping those who are grieving.

Zimbabwe has faced severe droughts, resulting in low agricultural outputs. This has threatened food and nutrition security in community sections, especially in areas with low annual rainfall. There is a growing need to maximize water usage, monitor the environment and nutrients, and temperatures by the adaptation of smart agriculture. This research explored the use of the Internet of Things (IoT) for smart agriculture in Zimbabwe to improve food production. The mixed methodology was used to gather data through interviews from 50 purposively sampled A2 farmers in the five agricultural regions of Zimbabwe and was supported by the use of the Internet. The findings reveal that some farmers have adopted IoT in Zimbabwe, others are still to adopt such technology and some are not aware of the technology. IoT’s benefits to Zimbabwean farmers are immense in that it improves food security, water preservation, and farm management. However, for most farmers to benefit from IoT, more awareness campaigns should be carried out and mobile and fixed Internet connectivity improved in some of the areas.