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Journal articles on the topic 'Weeds – Biological control – Zimbabwe'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 4 February 2022

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1

Kurugundla, C. N., B. Mathangwane, S. Sakuringwa, and G. Katorah. "Alien Invasive Aquatic Plant Species in Botswana: Historical Perspective and Management." Open Plant Science Journal 9, no. 1 (June 14, 2016): 1–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874294701609010001.

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Aquatic ecosystems in Botswana have been under threat by the aquatic alien invasive plant species viz., salvinia Salvinia molesta Mitchell, water lettuce Pistia stratiotes L., and water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub. While salvinia has been termed the major threat to the Botswana wetlands, water lettuce and water hyacinth are considered to be of minor importance. This review presents the species biology, distribution, historical spread, negative impacts, control achieved right from their discovery in the country by referring to their control and management in the world. Having infested the Kwando-Linyanti-Chobe Rivers in the 1970s, salvinia was initially tried by the use of herbicides, paraquat and glyphosate, between 1972 and 1976. With the discovery of the host specific biological control weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder and Sands in 1981, the weevil was introduced by Namibians on Kwando and Chobe Rivers in 1983 and by Botswana in 1986 in the Okavango Delta. While the control was slowly establishing in Kwando-Linyanti-Chobe Rivers, it became apparent that lakes and perennial swamps within and outside Moremi Game Reserve of the Okavango Delta were infested with salvinia from 1992 onwards. With continuous and sustained liberation of the weevil in the Kwando-Linyanti-Chobe Rivers and in the Okavango Delta between 1999 and 2000, salvinia control was achieved by 2003, and since then the weevil constantly keeps the weed at low levels. The success is mainly due to sustainable monitoring through the application of physical and biological control methods. However, salvinia is still threatening the Okavango Delta due to factors such as tourism activities, boat navigation fishing and transporttion by wild animals. The first occurrence of water lettuce was recorded on Kwando and Chobe Rivers in 1986. Its biocontrol weevil Neohydronomous affinis Hustache was released in the year 1987. The weevil became extinct in Selinda Canal and Zibadianja Lake on Kwando River due to dry and wet events for over 10 years and the weed had been under control biologically on Chobe River. Having surface covered the Selinda and a part of the Zibadianja in high flood and rainfall in 1999/2000 season, research was undertaken to contain water lettuce, which led to its eradication by 2005. Regular physical removal of the water lettuce prior to fruit maturity is an effective method of control or eradicating the weed in seasonal water bodies. The Limpopo Basin (shared by Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique) has become vulnerable to water hyacinth infestation. Water hyacinth infested the trans-boundary Limpopo River in 2010 sourced from Hartbeesport Dam on Crocodile River in South Africa. Botswana and South Africa have been consulting each other to implement integrated control of the weed jointly in the Limpopo River. Water hyacinth could be a continuous threat to the dams and the rivers in the Limpopo basin if its control is not taken seriously. These three species are found growing in Botswana in a range of pH between 4.5 and 10.3 and in the range of conductivities between 20 and 580 µS cm-1. Range of soluble nitrates, phosphates and potassium in the habitats of salvinia infestations were 0.02 to 1.5, 0.01 to 1.78 and 0.3 to 6.92 mg L-1 respectively. Water lettuce infestation in the seasonal Selinda Canal had a maximum of 4.7 mg L-1 nitrates, 2.8 mg L-1 phosphates and 7.9 mg L-1 potassium. Nevertheless, these three nutrients were in the range of 0.41 to 9.56 mg L-1, 0.2 to 2.9 mg L-1, and 7.7 to 11.53 mg L-1 respectively in the Limpopo River where water hyacinth infestations were observed. These nutrients were considerably high during decomposition phase of biological control of weeds. The Government of Botswana “regulates the movement and importation of boats and aquatic apparatus, to prevent the importation and spread of aquatic weeds both within and from the neighboring countries” by “Aquatic Weed (Control) Act” implemented in 1986. These measures, combined with communities, conservation groups, NGOs and public awareness campaigns, have highlighted the gravity of aquatic weeds spreading into wetlands, dams and other water bodies. In conclusion, the Government of Botswana is committed and supportive through the Department of Water Affairs in protecting the wetlands of the country efficiently and prudently.
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2

Chikwenhere, Godfrey P., and C. L. Keswani. "Economics of biological control of Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta Mitchell) at Tengwe in north-western Zimbabwe- a case study." International Journal of Pest Management 43, no. 2 (January 1997): 109–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/096708797228780.

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3

McFadyen, Rachel E. Cruttwell. "BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS." Annual Review of Entomology 43, no. 1 (January 1998): 369–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.369.

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4

Templeton, George E. "Biological control of weeds." American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 3, no. 2-3 (1988): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0889189300002204.

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AbstractA shortage of effective, non-chemical pest control measures is a major constraint to more widespread adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. Overcoming this constraint with biological pest control tactics appears to be an attainable goal but will require substantial public sector support. Biological agents that are self-perpetuating do not offer profit incentive to private industry. On the other hand, microbial pesticides, which do require annual application, often are so highly specific for particular pests that the private sector is unable to risk venture capital for their development. Collaboration between public- and private-sector scientists is essential for biological pesticide development. In the U.S., a model working relationship for technology transfer between the private and public sector has been achieved with two commercial mycoherbicides, Collego™ and DeVine™. The model illustrates the strengths of the public sector for creating and storing fundamental knowledge of biological interactions at the organismal and ecosystem levels, also the capability of the private sector for large-scale production of fungi, for drying labile, living products, for effective patent protection, for satisfying EPA registration requirements, and for the commercial distribution, marketing and servicing of agricultural products. From three perspectives-biological, technical, and commercial—the success of Collego™ and DeVine™ has provided a definite step in the quest for low-cost weed control methods that are not hazardous to the environment nor in ground water. These successes also provide a model for an approach to reducing the dependence of agriculture upon chemical herbicides, the most extensively used chemical pesticides in agricultural production, likewise a useful insight toward technology that can lead to more widespread adoption of low-input, environmentally compatible and sustainable agricultural production.
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5

Bekuzarova, S. A., I. M. Khanieva, G. V. Lushchenko, D. M. Mamiev, and A. A. Tedeeva. "Weeds biological control technique." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 548 (September 2, 2020): 082008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/548/8/082008.

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6

Strobel, Gary A. "Biological Control of Weeds." Scientific American 265, no. 1 (July 1991): 72–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0791-72.

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7

Boyetchko, Susan M. "Principles of Biological Weed Control." HortScience 30, no. 4 (July 1995): 750D—750. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.30.4.750d.

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Weeds continue to have a tremendous impact on crop yield losses in Canada and the United States, despite efforts to control them with chemicals. Biological control offers an additional means for reducing weed populations while reducing the reliance of the agri-food industry on chemical pesticides. Effective biological strategies that are compatible with good soil conservation practices would benefit farmers while maintaining environmental quality and a sustained production for the future. Inundative biological control of weeds with microbial agents involves the mass production and application of high concentrations of a plant pathogen to a target weed. Historically, biocontrol agents used on weeds have been foliar fungal pathogens. More recently, the soil has become a source for microorganisms, such as rhizobacteria, for development as biological control agents. Several naturally occurring rhizobacteria have weed suppressive properties, where growth and development of weeds such as downy brome, wild oats, leafy spurge, and green foxtail are significantly inhibited. Although the focus in weed biocontrol has been on the eradication of weeds, rhizobacteria may be used to improve seedling establishment of the crop by reducing the weed competition. This can be achieved through a reduction in weed growth, vigor, and reproductive capacity and improvement in the ability of the crop to compete with the weed. Current research in weed biocontrol with microorganisms and its application to weed management systems will be discussed.
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8

Kumar, Naveen, and Aribam Sonali Devi. "Biological control of weeds: A review." International Journal of Chemical Studies 8, no. 6 (November 1, 2020): 1316–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i6s.10942.

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9

Mortensen, K. "Biological control of weeds with plant pathogensBiological control of weeds with plant pathogens." Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 8, no. 2 (June 1986): 229–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07060668609501832.

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10

Groenteman, R., D. Kelly, and S. V. Fowler. "Multitargeting for biological control of sleeper weeds." New Zealand Plant Protection 61 (August 1, 2008): 396. http://dx.doi.org/10.30843/nzpp.2008.61.6875.

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Sleeper weeds are weeds at the early stage of invasion exotic species that have become naturalised and are highly likely to turn invasive in due course New Zealand has more naturalised exotic vascular plant species than natives many of which are considered sleeper weeds Biological control is more likely to succeed on weeds that have not yet fulfilled their invasive potential hence its significance in management of sleeper weeds Multitargeting is suggested here as a new approach for safe and effective management of multiple closely related invasive and sleeper weed species from groups not represented in the native flora using agents with a relatively wide host range While specifically targeting an invasive species in the group such agents could prevent closely related sleeper weeds from becoming a problem in the first place Thistles were used as a case study and strong support was found for the multitargeting approach Thus three nontarget less preferred thistle species were attacked and damaged by the biocontrol agent Rhinocyllus conicus more in the presence of its preferred host Carduus nutans (nodding thistle) than in its absence both in a field experiment and in a field survey
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11

Julien, M. H. "Biological control of rangeland weeds in Australia." Rangeland Journal 28, no. 1 (2006): 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rj06013.

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Weeds of Australian rangelands have been the target for biological control since 1914. There have been several spectacular successes, e.g. prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp.), with extraordinary ecological and commercial benefits. There have also been projects where no positive outcome has occurred, e.g. prickly acacia [Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan], parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata L.), and creeping lantana [Lantana montevidensis (Spreng.) Briq.]. Numerous other projects are currently underway and require continuing support to achieve the stated aims. There is considerable potential to increase investment in biological control of rangeland weeds to improve outcomes of current projects and to implement new projects. There is promise of excellent benefits to cost ratios based on past performance. However, there is a worrying trend of loss of capacity in Australia to conduct biological control. Since resources will always be limited, it is important that the weeds that have the greatest impact on ecosystem function and commercial production are identified and targeted for management. Biological control should be part of the management strategies for those priority weeds when conflict over weediness v. commercial value can be resolved in favour of biological control, and when it is considered that biological control could offer benefits.
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12

Harborne, Jeffrey B. "Biological control of pests, pathogens and weeds." Phytochemistry 28, no. 2 (January 1989): 679. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(89)80091-3.

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13

Wapshere, A. J., E. S. Delfosse, and J. M. Cullen. "Recent developments in biological control of weeds." Crop Protection 8, no. 4 (August 1989): 227–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0261-2194(89)90009-4.

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14

Randall, John M. "Weed Control for the Preservation of Biological Diversity." Weed Technology 10, no. 2 (June 1996): 370–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890037x00040124.

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Invasions by non-native plants threaten the preservation of many plant and animal species and communities throughout North America. These pest species compete with and displace native plants and animals and may substantially alter ecosystem functions (e.g., fire occurrence and frequency, nutrient cycling). Awareness of these threats among wildland managers has greatly increased in the last decade. In a recent poll of National Park superintendents, 61% of 246 respondents indicated non-native plant invasions were moderate or major problems at their parks. Likewise, over 60% of Nature Conservancy stewards nationwide polled in 1992 indicated weeds were among their top 10 management problems, listing nearly 200 problem species. Over 12% indicated weeds were their worst problem. Weed control programs are now in place in wildlands across the continent, employing techniques ranging from manual removal, mechanical methods, prescribed fire, judicious use of herbicides, the release of biological control agents, and encouragement of native competitors. The most successful endeavors follow an adaptive management strategy in which plans based on the goals of the preserve are developed, weeds that interfere with those goals are identified and prioritized, and control measures are selected and implemented where appropriate. Emphasis is placed on preventing new weeds from becoming established and on early detection and elimination of incipient infestations. Managers must focus on the vegetation or community desired in place of the weeds and periodically re-evaluate whether their programs are moving them toward this objective. Control of weeds in wildlands poses unusual problems not ordinarily met in other systems which offer challenging research opportunities for weed scientists and ecologists.
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15

Dimitrova, Tsvetanka. "Biological efficacy of herbicides for weed control in noncropped areas." Pesticidi i fitomedicina 24, no. 2 (2009): 95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/pif0902095d.

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An increasing problem facing agricultural producers is the invasion of weeds, perennial in particular, so that implementation of industrial technologies is impossible without their highly efficient and rational control. For the purpose of studying efficient herbicides for weed control in noncropped areas (stubbles), a biological study of five total systemic herbicides was conducted in areas under natural weed infestation and pressure from other surrounding weeds at the Institute of Forage Crops in Pleven in 2005-2007. The trials were carried out in field conditions using the block method with plot size of 20 m2. Treatment was conducted at the predominant stage of budding of perennial dicotyledonous weeds and earring of monocotyledonous weeds. Herbicidal efficacy was recorded on the EWRS 9-score scale (0-100% killed weeds = score 9-1). It was found that treatment of noncropped areas (stubbles) with the total systemic herbicides Touchdown System 4 (360 g/l glyphosate); Cosmic (360 g/l glyphosate); Roundup Plus (441 g/l glyphosate potassium salt); Leon 36 SL (360 g/l glyphosate) and Glyphos Super 45 SL (450 g/l glyphosate) was highly efficient, so that it was a successful element of a strategy for controlling weeds of different biological groups, and was especially effective against perennial weeds.
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16

Dahiya, Anupma, Kavita Chahar, and Satyavir S. Sindhu. "The rhizosphere microbiome and biological control of weeds: A review." Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 17, no. 4 (February 13, 2020): e10R01. http://dx.doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2019174-15073.

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The productivity of important grain crops wheat, rice and maize is adversely affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses. Weeds and phytopathogens are the major biotic stresses involved in biomass reduction and yield losses of these cereal crops. Various weeds compete with crop plants for natural resources viz. light, moisture, nutrients and space, and cause yield losses to agricultural produce. Weeds also increase harvesting costs and reduce quality of the farm produce. Weed management strategies include crop rotation, mechanical weeding or treatment with different herbicides. Although, sprays of different herbicides control various destructive weeds but their excessive use is environmentally unsafe and uneconomic. Indiscriminate use of these agrochemicals for weed control has resulted into considerable pollution of soil, groundwater and atmosphere. Therefore, effective biological weed management is an attractive approach for achieving the increased crop production to meet the food demands of the escalating global population. Many bacteria and fungi have been identified from the plant rhizospheres, which suppress the growth of weeds. The production of indole acetic acid, aminolevulinic acid, toxins and hydrogen cyanide has been correlated with the growth suppression of various weeds. Interestingly, inoculation with bioherbicides results in creation of biased rhizosphere leading to resource partitioning of nutrients towards growth stimulation of crop plants. Thus, inoculation of plants with bioherbicides has been found to increase germination percentage, seedling vigor, root and shoot growth, seed weight and increased grain, fodder and fruit yields. These environment-friendly biocontrol strategies for management of weeds are highly compatible with the sustainable agriculture.
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17

Maroyi, Alfred. "Use of weeds as traditional vegetables in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe." Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9, no. 1 (2013): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-60.

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18

Barreto, R., R. Charudattan, A. Pomella, and R. Hanada. "Biological control of neotropical aquatic weeds with fungi." Crop Protection 19, no. 8-10 (September 2000): 697–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0261-2194(00)00093-4.

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19

Greaves, M. P., and M. H. Julien. "Biological Control of Weeds: A World Catalogue of Agents and Their Target Weeds." Journal of Ecology 81, no. 1 (March 1993): 197. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2261240.

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20

Masiunas, John. "Biological Control of Weeds, A World Catalogue of Agents and Their Target Weeds." HortTechnology 10, no. 2 (January 2000): 396–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/horttech.10.2.396.

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21

Greathead, D. J. "Biological Control of Weeds. A World Catalogue of Agents and their Target Weeds." Journal of Applied Entomology 124, no. 9-10 (December 2000): 395. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0418.2000.00358.x.

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22

Webb, Morag. "Biological Control of Weeds. A World Catalogue of Agents and their Target Weeds." Plant Pathology 48, no. 6 (December 1999): 836–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3059.1999.0411b.x.

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23

Auld, B. A. "Biological control of weeds. A world catalogue of agents and their target weeds." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 24, no. 4 (December 1988): 460–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(88)90126-0.

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24

Murimwa, J. C., J. T. Rugare, S. Mabasa, and R. Mandumbu. "Allelopathic Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) on the Early Seedling Growth of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Varieties and Selected Weeds." International Journal of Agronomy 2019 (March 3, 2019): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/5494756.

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Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) production is lucrative to resource poor farmers in marginalised areas of Zimbabwe, although most farmers have reportedly been failing to derive maximum economic benefits from sesame production due to poor productivity. Low productivity has been attributed to several factors including challenges of weed control due to absence of registered herbicides for use in sesame in Zimbabwe. Laboratory enzyme assays were conducted using different sorghum aqueous leaf and stem extract concentrations at 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0% wv−1 to determine the effect of sorghum aqueous extracts on plant defense enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD), and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) in sesame and selected weeds. Greenhouse experiments were conducted to assess the effect of sorgaab or sorgaab-Agil postemergence sprays on the seedling growth and physiology of sesame and weeds. The exposure of sesame, black jack, and goose grass to sorghum aqueous extracts caused a significant (p<0.05) concentration-dependent increase on the activity of antioxidant enzymes PAL, POD, and POD. Similarly, postemergence sprays of sole sorgaab, herbicide, and sorgaab-herbicide combination significantly (p<0.05) increased sesame and black jack seedling growth, chlorophyll content, and fluorescence but not of goose grass. From this study, it could be concluded that the allelochemicals in sorghum aqueous extracts were not effective at inhibiting the growth and physiological processes of sesame and the weeds. Therefore, resource-poor farmers cannot rely on sorgaab to control weeds in sesame but there is a need to integrate weed control options to form an effective integrated weed management program.
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25

Cheraghian Radi, Hamid, and Ali Mohammad Banaei-Moghaddam. "Biological Control of Weeds by Fungi: Challenges and Opportunities." Acta Scientific Microbiology 3, no. 5 (April 1, 2020): 62–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.31080/asmi.2020.03.0590.

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26

Murphy, Stephen D. "Biological Control of Weeds and Plant Diseases.Elroy L. Rice." Quarterly Review of Biology 71, no. 3 (September 1996): 411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/419479.

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Morin, Louise. "Progress in Biological Control of Weeds with Plant Pathogens." Annual Review of Phytopathology 58, no. 1 (August 25, 2020): 201–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-phyto-010820-012823.

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Plant pathogens have played an important role in weed biological control since the 1970s. So far, 36 fungal pathogens have been authorized for introduction across 18 countries for the classical biological control of weeds. Their safety record has been excellent, but questions continue to be asked about the risk that they could transfer to other plants. Quantitative data documenting their impact on the weed populations are still limited. Of the 15 bioherbicides based on living microorganisms that have ever been registered, only two were commercially available at the time of this review. The development and commercialization of bioherbicides in affluent countries are still plagued by technological hurdles and limited market potential. Not-for-profit small-scale production and distribution systems for bioherbicides in low-income countries may have potential as an inexpensive approach to controlling pervasive weeds. The types of research underpinning biological control approaches and challenges encountered are highlighted using specific examples.
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Paynter, Quentin, Simon V. Fowler, Allan Hugh Gourlay, Ronny Groenteman, Paul G. Peterson, Lindsay Smith, and Chris J. Winks. "Predicting parasitoid accumulation on biological control agents of weeds." Journal of Applied Ecology 47, no. 3 (April 28, 2010): 575–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01810.x.

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Auld, Bruce A. "On the social value of biological control of weeds." International Journal of Social Economics 25, no. 6/7/8 (July 1998): 1199–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03068299810212685.

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30

Paterson, I. D., C. A. Manheimmer, and H. G. Zimmermann. "Prospects for biological control of cactus weeds in Namibia." Biocontrol Science and Technology 29, no. 4 (December 27, 2018): 393–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2018.1562040.

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Sauerborn, J., D. Müller-Stöver, and J. Hershenhorn. "The role of biological control in managing parasitic weeds." Crop Protection 26, no. 3 (March 2007): 246–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2005.12.012.

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Wapshere, A. "Effectiveness of biological control agents for weeds: present quandaries." Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 13, no. 3-4 (July 1985): 261–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(85)90015-5.

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33

Dukpa, Rinzim, Anupam Tiwari, and Dhriti Kapoor. "Biological management of allelopathic plant Parthenium sp." Open Agriculture 5, no. 1 (June 23, 2020): 252–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opag-2020-0027.

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AbstractGlobally, weeds have been considered as a major threat and act as a hindrance to crop production, even though the farmers put tremendous efforts to eliminate the weeds to get a better yield. Weeds stayed a steady threat to productivity and manageability of soil and environment, regardless of many years of research and advances in management practices. Parthenium hysterophorus is widely studied all around the world including India as a noxious and an unsafe weed responsible for many health risks in humans and animals. Many experts employed different biological methods using insects, beetle, microorganisms, and certain pathogens, which caused a broad dispersal damage to P. hysterophorus. Biorational weed control is also offered by allelopathy through the production of allelochemicals from the leaf, blossoms, grains, nuts, bud, berry, trunk, and organization of living or decaying plant substance. Allelopathy is the most realistic method to control the weeds as well as different plants. Lately, there has been a proliferation of curiosity to research on plant allelopathy to control weeds in agro-ecosystems. The successful management of this weed can only be achieved by an integrated approach with allelochemicals as a crucial aspect.
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34

Goeden, R. D., and L. T. Kok. "COMMENTS ON A PROPOSED “NEW” APPROACH FOR SELECTING AGENTS FOR THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS." Canadian Entomologist 118, no. 1 (January 1986): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/ent11851-1.

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AbstractThe “new approach” to selecting biological control agents, as proposed by Hokkanen and Pimentel in 1984, through the use of new exploiter–victim associations is inappropriate for the biological control of weeds because of certain misconceptions in their method. Examples of biological control of weeds cited in their analysis were biased towards cactaceous insects, and cacti are not representative of target weeds. Several of their “new” associations were inaccurate. These inaccuracies are discussed and additional examples are provided to refute the proposed method. Contrary to the recommendation of Hokkanen and Pimentel, new exploiter-victim associations offer limited opportunities for biological control of non-cactaceous weeds with insects, and should not be used as the preferred method in selecting biotic agents for the biological control of weeds.
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35

Jones, W. A., and R. Sforza. "The European Biological Control Laboratory: an existing infrastructure for biological control of weeds in Europe." EPPO Bulletin 37, no. 1 (April 2007): 163–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2338.2007.01093.x.

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36

Carruthers, Raymond I., and Carla M. D’Antonio. "Science and decision making in biological control of weeds: Benefits and risks of biological control." Biological Control 35, no. 3 (December 2005): 181–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.10.001.

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37

Trujillo, Eduardo E. "Microbial Control of Weeds. David O. TeBeest." Quarterly Review of Biology 67, no. 2 (June 1992): 211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/417588.

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38

Hoffmann, J. H., F. A. C. Impson, and C. R. Volchansky. "Biological control of cactus weeds: implications of hybridization between control agent biotypes." Journal of Applied Ecology 39, no. 6 (December 11, 2002): 900–908. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00766.x.

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Tóth, Tamás, György Kövics, and Arnold Szilágyi. "Characterization of two rust fungi related to biological control concept in Hungary." Acta Agraria Debreceniensis, no. 74 (June 30, 2018): 195–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.34101/actaagrar/74/1689.

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Weeds cause serious problems in agriculture on a global scale. These plants reduce yield and the quality of crops by competing for water, nutrients and sunlight. The improper or excessive usage of herbicides have led to development of resistance in some weed species while contaminating the environment; therefore, biological control has an increasing role as an alternative method for controlling special weed species. The aim of this study is to make a brief review of biological control of weeds by pathogens and to characterize two rust fungi (Puccinia lagenophorae and Puccinia xanthii) which are broadly examined recently in a biological control concept and have been found on their hosts, such as common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.) and common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.), two common and difficult to manage weeds both in horticultural and agricultural lands also in Hungary.
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G., D. A., R. K. S. Wood, and M. J. Way. "Biological Control of Pests, Pathogens, and Weeds: Developments and Prospects." Mycologia 82, no. 2 (March 1990): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3759867.

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Charudattan, Raghavan, and Amos Dinoor. "Biological control of weeds using plant pathogens: accomplishments and limitations." Crop Protection 19, no. 8-10 (September 2000): 691–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0261-2194(00)00092-2.

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KHANH, TRAN DANG, TRAN DANG XUAN, DUONG VAN CHIN, ILL MIN CHUNG, ELZAAWELY ABDELNASER ABDELGHANY, and SHINKICHI TAWATA. "Current status of biological control of paddy weeds in Vietnam." Weed Biology and Management 6, no. 1 (March 2006): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-6664.2006.00189.x.

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Evans, Harry C. "The Safe Use of Fungi for Biological Control of Weeds." Phytoprotection 79, no. 4 (1998): 67. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/706160ar.

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Sandst, David C., and R. Vincent Miller. "Evolving strategies for biological control of weeds with plant pathogens." Pesticide Science 37, no. 4 (1993): 399–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ps.2780370414.

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Te Beest, D. O., X. B. Yang, and C. R. Cisar. "The Status of Biological Control of Weeds with Fungal Pathogens." Annual Review of Phytopathology 30, no. 1 (September 1992): 637–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.30.090192.003225.

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Sabelis, Maurice W. "Biological control of pests, pathogens and weeds: Developments and prospects." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 4, no. 1 (January 1989): 31–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(89)90018-9.

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Heale, James B. "Biological control of pests, pathogens and weeds: Developments and prospects." Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 36, no. 3 (March 1990): 262–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0885-5765(90)90031-r.

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Gaskin, John F., Marie-Claude Bon, Matthew J. W. Cock, Massimo Cristofaro, Alessio De Biase, Rose De Clerck-Floate, Carol A. Ellison, et al. "Applying molecular-based approaches to classical biological control of weeds." Biological Control 58, no. 1 (July 2011): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2011.03.015.

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Gunsolus, Jeffrey L. "Mechanical and cultural weed control in corn and soybeans." American Journal of Alternative Agriculture 5, no. 3 (September 1990): 114–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0889189300003416.

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AbstractMany farmers and consumers are reevaluating chemical weed control because of the environmental risks of herbicides and their influence on farm size and diversity. This paper reviews research of the last 35 years on mechanical and cultural weed control in corn(Zea maysL.)and soybeans(Glycine maxL.).Soybeans can better use the weed control advantages of late planting and narrow row spacing and are less affected by early stand losses from mechanical weed control. In Minnesota, delaying planting to early June allows early germinating weeds to be controlled by preplant tillage but reduces the maximum yield potential of corn by approximately 25 percent and soybeans by approximately 10 percent. Narrow rows allow the crop canopy to close earlier, preventing emerging weeds from developing. However, in a nonchemical weed control system, the row spacing should allow for inter-row cultivation to control weeds that emerge with the crop. Up to a 10 percent reduction in crop stand may be expected in fields that have been rotary hoed. In Minnesota, a 10 percent stand loss results in a 2 percent loss of corn yield potential and no loss of soybean yield potential. Successful mechanical weed control is directly related to the timeliness of the operation. Rotary hoeing is effective on weeds that have germinated but not yet emerged but not on weeds that germinate from deeper than 5 cm, on no-till fields, or on fields with more than 20 to 30 percent crop residue. Inter-row cultivation is most effective on weeds up to 10 to 15 cm tall. Successful nonchemical weed control requires highly refined management skills and is as much an art as a science.
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Phatak, Sharad C., M. Brett Callaway, and Charles S. Vavrina. "Biological Control and Its Integration in Weed Management Systems for Purple and Yellow Nutsedge (Cyperus rotundusandC. esculentus)." Weed Technology 1, no. 1 (January 1987): 84–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0890037x00029195.

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Observations of the effects of living organisms on weeds dates from 1795 when an insect,Dactylopius ceylonicus, was introduced for drooping pricklypear (Opuntia vulgarisMiller) control over a vast area. Since that time, biological control of weeds employed mainly the classical strategy of introducing natural enemies from areas of co-evolution. Self-perpetuation and dissemination of these introduced enemies was essential to suppress successfully the weed below economic levels. This classical tactic is suited particularly for weeds that are distributed widely in less intensively cropped or noncropped areas. Guidelines to introduce foreign organisms for biological control of weeds in the United States have been established.
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