Relevant bibliographies by topics / Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay

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Academic literature on the topic 'Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 6 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay"

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Kermode, S. J., H. Heijnis, H. Wong, A. Zawadzki, P. Gadd, and A. Permana. "A Ramsar-wetland in suburbia: wetland management in an urbanised, industrialised area." Marine and Freshwater Research 67, no. 6 (2016): 771. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf14307.

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Wetlands provide crucial services to support human populations and intrinsic environmental functioning. They are, therefore, recognised at higher-level global conservation treaties down to regional and local environmental management plans. Palaeorecords to understand preimpact conditions and ranges of natural variability are critical, alongside ongoing monitoring of ecosystem health for understanding important wetlands and determining long-term conservation strategies. They also enable effective analysis of human impacts. Towra Point Nature Reserve is an internationally significant wetland complex listed under multiple international conservation agreements, including the 1971 Ramsar Convention. It faces similar challenges to other coastal wetlands globally: sea level rise, changing shoreline conditions, and anthropogenic impacts. Its location within Sydney’s Botany Bay results in high potential for pollutants to enter the wetland complex. This makes ongoing monitoring of the ecosystem critically important. This study has found that arsenic, lead and zinc are relatively elevated in the southern part of the embayment, adjacent to an urban area, where concentrations are near to, or exceeding trigger levels (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000). In contrast, in the western part of the embayment contaminant levels are well below trigger values. We propose that these trigger levels should be adopted and incorporated into the Towra Point Plan of Management.
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Rains, M. C., S. Landry, K. C. Rains, V. Seidel, and T. L. Crisman. "Using Net Wetland Loss, Current Wetland Condition, and Planned Future Watershed Condition for Wetland Conservation Planning and Prioritization, Tampa Bay Watershed, Florida." Wetlands 33, no. 5 (August 7, 2013): 949–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13157-013-0455-4.

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Mitsch, W. J. "Applying science to conservation and restoration of the world's wetlands." Water Science and Technology 51, no. 8 (April 1, 2005): 13–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0215.

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The world has an estimated 7 to 9 million km2 of wetlands which can be defined through their hydrology, physiochemical environment, and biota. Many human cultures have lived in harmony with wetland environments for centuries. Many others have not, resulting in drainage or severe impact of wetlands throughout the world. Conservation of wetlands needs to be a priority for the cultural and ecological values they provide. But a more optimistic note is that large-scale restoration and re-creation of wetlands and riverine systems is beginning to happen throughout the world through ecological engineering. Examples of large-scale wetland restoration projects are presented for Delaware Bay, the Skjern River (Denmark), Florida Everglades, Louisiana Delta, the Mississippi River Basin, and the Mesopotamian Marshlands of Iraq.
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Weishar, Lee L., John M. Teal, and Ray Hinkle. "Designing large-scale wetland restoration for Delaware Bay." Ecological Engineering 25, no. 3 (September 2005): 231–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.04.012.

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Jha, Sasinath. "Status and Conservation of Lowland Terai Wetlands in Nepal." Our Nature 6, no. 1 (March 1, 2009): 67–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v6i1.1657.

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Known as "Simsar" in Nepal, wetlands are those areas which lie between the land and deepwater and remian waterlogged or submerged under water, seasonally or throughout the year. Generally the land is so muddy that one cannot easily walk over it, and water is so deep that one can neither swim nor get drowned. River floodplains, shallow margins of lakes and reservoirs, shallow and seasonal ponds, islands in rivers, deepwater paddy fields, and sea-coasts are typical examples of wetlands.Keywords: Lowland wetland, Nepaldoi: 10.3126/on.v6i1.1657Our Nature (2008)6:67-77
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Burke, Vincent J., and J. Whitfield Gibbons. "Terrestrial Buffer Zones and Wetland Conservation: A Case Study of Freshwater Turtles in a Carolina Bay." Conservation Biology 9, no. 6 (December 1995): 1365–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09061365.x.

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Pyrovetsi, Myrto, and Evanthia Papastergiadou. "Biological Conservation Implications of Water-level Fluctuations in a Wetland of International Importance: Lake Kerkini, Macedonia, Greece." Environmental Conservation 19, no. 3 (1992): 235–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900031039.

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Kerkini Lake in Greece, a reservoir maintained principally for agricultural irrigation purposes on the Strymon River, has been classified as a ‘Wetland of International Importance’ according to the Ramsar Convention. Hydrological conditions favoured the formation of a shallow, very productive lake, rich in species diversity and biotic abundance. The importance of the wetland lay in its complex zonation of various habitats which mainly consisted of: shallow open water with sand-strips, beaches, and mud-flats; shallow-water areas with communities of emergent vegetation; a lowland hardwood riparian forest mainly of Salix and Tamarix species; a shrub-swamp; and extensive wet meadows. The diversity of habitats supported a rich waterbird fauna for breeding, stationing during migration, and wintering.Nevertheless, in 1982 a new high-dam was constructed, higher embankments along the banks of the Lake were established, and other works were carried out (to increase the water capacity of the reservoir), in response to irrigation demands. No consideration was given to the wetland resources. Operation of the new dam resulted in changes in the flooding etc. regime, with severe impact on the biotic resources of the wetland, especially by waterlevel increases of more than 5 m in less than 4 months during spring — the critical growing- and breedingseason. Wetland heterogeneity and the mosaic structure of water-land-vegetation were thereby lost.Now the riparian forest is diminishing in area and declining in productivity, the reed-swamp with emergent macrophytes has been lost, and wet meadows have also disappeared. Deep flooding and the loss of these habitats is reflected in marked decline in the densities of migratory waterbird populations and, most important, in drastic shrinkage in the populations of breeding species. Similar impact is observed in the dramatic decline of fish species diversity and abundance. In general, nowadays, Kerkini presents an alarming example of loss of biodiversity and accelerating impoverishment of its former biotic resources.In view of the projected plans to increase further the water-storage capacity of the Lake by raising its waterlevel, measures are urgently needed: (a) for preventing such actions; (b) for restoring and maintaining marsh conditions, and (c) for ecologically sound management and sustainable use of the wetland resources.
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Jun, Youngcook. "Case Study of Suncheon Bay Wetland Conservation: Focusing on Value Recognition and Empathy for the Ecological Environment." Korean Association for Qualitative Inquiry 7, no. 2 (June 30, 2021): 355–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.30940/jqi.2021.7.2.355.

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MANRAL, Upma, and Faiyaz A. KHUDSAR. "Assessment of Wetland Water Quality and Avian Diversity of a Human-Modified Floodplain Wetland on River Yamuna." Notulae Scientia Biologicae 5, no. 1 (February 23, 2013): 25–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.15835/nsb519008.

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Okhla Bird Sanctuary (OBS) is an Important Bird Area, which comes under the protected area network of Uttar Pradesh with one-third area lying in the state of Delhi (India). OBS has widest flood plains along the Delhi stretch of river Yamuna and is important in conserving the ecological wealth of floodplains of the river. Rapid urbanization and industrialization and discharge of untreated wastewater into the river have resulted in deteriorated water quality. The present study focused on assessment of water quality, aquatic flora and avifaunal diversity in the OBS. Water quality was analyzed following methods of APHA. For vegetation analysis, sub-merged and free-floating plants were scooped up from five randomly selected sites. Total bird counts were conducted for water birds and species richness, evenness and Shannon-Weaver species diversity indices were calculated. Results indicate that the organic load is very high in the wetland as evident from low levels of dissolved oxygen (2.26 ± 1.62 mg/l) and high Biological and Chemical Oxygen Demands (15.20 ± 3.75 mg/l, 44.60 ± 12.07 mg/l). Nine species of free-floating and submerged plants were recorded; Hydrilla verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, Azolla pinnata and Ceratophyllum demersum dominated both deep and shallow water areas. 52 species of waterbirds including four near-threatened species viz., Anhinga melanogaster, Mycteria leucocephala, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Aythya nyroca were recorded. OBS provides opportunities for conservation in a metropolitan area, thus, appropriate measures should be taken to maintain its ecological integrity.
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Schulz, Kailee, Philip W. Stevens, Jeffrey E. Hill, Alexis A. Trotter, Jared L. Ritch, Kyle L. Williams, Joshua T. Patterson, and Quenton M. Tuckett. "Coastal wetland restoration improves habitat for juvenile sportfish in Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.A." Restoration Ecology 28, no. 5 (September 2020): 1283–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rec.13215.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay"

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Chan, Chung-san. "The future of the Deep Bay Wetlands, Hong Kong /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1997. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B18735927.

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Chan, Chung-san, and 陳仲新. "The future of the Deep Bay Wetlands, Hong Kong." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1997. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31253647.

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Leung, Wai-hung. "The conservation of coastal wetlands, especially the Mai Po marshes, in Hong Kong : problems and prospects /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B17457403.

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Fritz, Gisela B. "The floral and faunal recovery of a restored coastal wetland : Kunz Marsh, South Slough, Coos Bay, Or. /." Connect to title online (Scholars' Bank), 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/5381.

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Shaffer, Laura Jean 1972. "How successful has wetland mitigation been? : an examination of wetland compensatory mitigation success in the Coos Watershed, Oregon." Thesis, Thesis (M.S.)--University of Oregon, 1999, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/10055.

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Clouston, Elizabeth, and n/a. "Linking the Ecological and Economic Values of Wetlands: A Case Study of the Wetlands of Moreton Bay." Griffith University. Australian School of Environmental Studies, 2003. http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20030828.140330.

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This thesis examines the relationship between the underlying ecological values of wetlands and the economic values they produce. The importance of the roles that wetlands play is now well recognised yet losses continue at a global level. It is argued that one cause of wetland loss is a lack of awareness of the values of these systems due to inadequate information of the nexus between ecological functions and economic values. For example, the off-site, indirect benefits provided by wetlands have largely been ignored. This has led to an undervaluation of these ecosystems. The integration of ecological and economic values requires incorporating differing types of information and systems of value derived from differing disciplines with differing paradigms. To understand the differing disciplinary perspectives the thesis explores the ecological functions of wetlands and the economic goods and services that they provide. The functions and benefits of wetlands are linked at the ecological-economic interface. A consensus on the definition of ecological value could not be discerned within the discipline of ecology. Thus, a definition and index of ecological value is developed to demonstrate the attributes of coastal and wetland systems that provide for instrumental human benefits. These attributes include productivity, the ability to provide habitats for dependent species and the diversity of species and organisation they support. However, ecological information is not presently available to operationalise the index. The ability of economic techniques to capture this ecological value is then investigated. Three approaches for assessing non-market values (direct linkage models, revealed preference and stated preference models) are reviewed with respect to their ability to capture ecological value. An alternative biophysical approach, namely energy analysis, is also considered. The review suggests that it may be possible to measure ecological value using the contingent valuation method. The role of information in preference formation and willingness to pay bids is then investigated along with a number of other issues that need to be resolved before using the contingent valuation method. The wetlands of the case study area, Moreton Bay, Australia exhibit both ecological and economic values. The wetlands contribute approximately one-third of primary productivity in the Bay, provide habitat for a wide range of dependent species (including internationally recognised migratory wader birds) and have a diverse fauna with a relatively large number of endemic species. Economic values of the wetlands include both direct and indirect use values (for example, fishing, recreation, water quality improvements and storm buffering) and non-use values. Non-use values include the value in preserving the environment for future generations (bequest value) and the existence of vulnerable animals such as turtles and dugongs, which one may never expect to see. If consumers are willing to pay to preserve these animals, this is also a valid economic value. The economic technique of contingent valuation is tested to determine if it is possible to capture ecological value by providing respondents, selected by random sample, to a survey with the relevant information. A case study is undertaken in Moreton Bay to determine respondents' willingness to pay to improve water quality and hence protect the wetlands. To test the effects of differing types information, four different versions of the survey were sent to four groups of 500 respondents. Case A provided no extra information so it could be used as a control. Case B included information about the ecological values of the wetlands of Moreton Bay. Case C provided information about the economic use values of the wetlands in the Bay including direct and indirect use. Case D provided information about the non-use values of endangered species resident in the Bay that are dependent on the wetlands. The results indicate that the provision of different types of information influences willingness to pay. However, willingness to pay when provided with ecological information is not significantly different from willingness to pay when provided with other information. As it was not possible from the research undertaken to state that the contingent valuation method can capture ecological value, an alternative approach is proposed to link ecological and economic values. It is argued that ecologists and economists need to develop common aims and scales of assessment. Further, communication between the two disciplines can be enhanced through the use of agreed indicator terms. Through an iterative approach it should then be possible to understand the linkages between changes in indicators of ecosystem values and indicators of economic value.
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Dlamini, Mandla E. "An assessment of vegetation condition of small, ephemeral wetlands ecosystem in a conserved and non-conserved area of the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/4653.

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Wetlands in South Africa are increasingly coming under threat from agriculture and urban development and rapidly disappearing, especially small, ephemeral wetlands. In response to the many threats to wetlands, South Africa has seen an increased interest in wetland research, which has introduced many methods to help standardize the approach to research, management and conservation of wetlands. Remote sensing can be a powerful tool to monitor changes in wetland vegetation and degradation leading to losses in wetlands. However, research into wetland ecosystems has focused on large systems (> 8 ha). Small wetlands (< 2 ha), by contrast, are often overlooked and unprotected due to the lack of detailed inventories at a scale that is appropriate for their inclusion. The main aim of this study was to determine if remote sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques could detect changes in small, ephemeral wetlands within areas under different management regimes in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole (NMBM) at different time intervals. Further, to explore the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing for the discrimination between plant species and to see if differences could be detected in the same species within two areas different management regimes. Four SPOT satellite images taken within a 6-year period (2006-2012) were analysed to detect land cover land changes. Supervised classification to classify land cover classes and post-classification change detection was used. Proportions of dense vegetation were higher in the conservation area and bare surface was higher outside that conservation area in the metropolitan open space area. Statistical tests were performed to compare the spectral responses of the four individual wetland sites using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and red edge position (REP) .REP results for conserved sites showed significant differences (P < 0.05), as opposed to non-conserved ones. By implication, wetland vegetation that is in less degraded condition can be spectrally discriminated, than the one that is most degraded. Field spectroscopy and multi-temporal imagery can be useful in studying small wetlands.
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Job, Nancy Merle. "Geomorphic origin and dynamics of deep, peat-filled, valley bottom wetlands dominated by palmiet (Prionium serratum) : a case study based on the Goukou Wetland, Western Cape." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1013122.

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The Goukou Wetland is a 700 ha unchannelled valley bottom wetland near the town of Riversdale in the Western Cape of South Africa. The wetland is approximately 16 km long and between 200 and 800 m wide, with peat deposits up to 8 m deep that get progressively shallower downstream. The Goukou Wetland is one of the last remaining intact peatlands of significant size in the Western Cape. However, there is increasing human pressure on these peat wetlands, where the dominant plant is palmiet (Prionium serratum), which is endemic to the Western and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa. Palmiet is viewed as a problem plant by farmers as it is believed to block waterways and promote inundation of arable land and infrastructure. Many landowners therefore actively remove palmiet from peatlands, threatening the integrity of these wetlands. Although the hydrogeomorphic origin of large, non-peat floodplain and valley bottom wetlands has been investigated in South Africa, unchannelled valley-bottom wetlands with deep peat accumulations are rare features and have not been well studied. The hydrogeomorphic factors leading to peat accumulation have been documented elsewhere in Southern Africa, where aggradation due to sedimentation along trunk streams may block a tributary stream, elevating the local base level of the tributary, creating the accommodation space for organic sedimentation. Alternatively, sedimentation along a trunk stream at the toe of a tributary stream may similarly block a trunk stream, promoting organic sedimentation along the trunk stream upstream of the tributary. This pattern of peat accumulation is associated with declining peat thickness upstream of the blocked valley. In the case of the Goukou Wetland, however, peat depth and organic content was found to increase consistently upstream from the toe to the head of the wetland. The Goukou Wetland was graded along its length, with gradient increasing consistently upstream in response to longitudinal variation in discharge. There was no clear relationship between peat formation and tributary streams blocking the wetland. Instead, the distribution of peat and the extent of the wetland appeared to be controlled by the plant palmiet, whose clonal nature and robust root, rhizome and stem system allowed it to grow from channel banks and islands into fast-flowing river channels, slowing river flows and ultimately blocking the channel. The promotion of diffuse flows within the dense, monospecific stands of palmiet creates conditions conducive to water retention and peat accumulation. By growing across the full width of the valley floor, the plant is able to constrict the stream, trapping sediment and slowing flows such that the fluvial environment is changed from a fast flowing stream to one with slow, diffuse flow. These processes appear to lead to the formation of organic sediment, accumulating to form a deep peat basin. The sustained input of water from the folded and fractured quartzite lithologies of the Cape Supergroup that make up the Langeberg Mountains, which provide the bulk of the water supply to the wetland, is also important in promoting permanent flooding in the wetland. A feature that characterized the wetland was the fact that bedrock across the valley beneath the peat deposits exhibited a remarkably uniform elevation. This suggests that over long periods of time (tens to hundreds of thousands of years), bedrock has been laterally planed across the valley floor. It is proposed that valley widening associated with lateral planning of Uitenhage Formation rocks has taken place during periods of episodic very high flows. During these episodes, erosion cuts into the peat wetland and valley sides, cutting to bedrock and planing the valley floor to a uniform elevation for a given distance from the head of the wetland. Periods of episodic degradation are followed by periods of renewed peat accumulation associated with palmiet establishment, such that the wetland valley is shaped by repeated cycles of cutting and filling. Palmiet can be considered an “ecosystem engineer” that is integral to the formation of these deep peat basins. Removal of palmiet from these systems is likely to have negative consequences for the wetland and its functions in that water storage will be reduced, erosion will increase dramatically, and the water-purification function of the wetlands will be lost. Management of these wetlands, which are close to the geomorphic threshold slopes for their size, is therefore essential if they are to be preserved for the benefit of human well-being.
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Mthiyane, Thokozani Sivikele. "Small scale farming on Wetland resource utilisation: a case study of Mandlanzini, Richards Bay." Thesis, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10530/550.

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A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Education in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Masters of Environmental Education in the Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education at the University of Zululand, 2009.
Wetland utilisation by rural communities in South Africa poses a serious challenge for natural resource conservation. The growing rate of rural poverty, poor education and socio-cultural beliefs contribute towards the current plight of many wetlands. The challenge that faces wetland sustainability stems from the over utilisation of wetland resources for survival as well as cultural activities that are practiced. This study aimed at investigating the impact of various wetland activities performed on a daily basis by local communities of Mandlanzini in the quest for survival. The community groups were selected to study their way of life and their relation to their local environment in order to deepen the understanding of their activities and impact on the wetland. Household data collected, gave a clear picture of socio-economic status of the community. The results of the study showed that community members, on the lower end of salary scales, were the ones who relied heavily on raising income by using resources available from the wetland. Research data showed that, there is a high demand for staple food such as ‘amandumbe’, banana, and sweet potatoes by the community under study. The study also showed that indigenous knowledge can play an important role towards the restoration of wetlands. Furthermore, as many community members practiced subsistence agriculture, most of their livestock depend on wetland resources. All these constituted good reasons why communities should be involved in wetland management and conservation.
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Books on the topic "Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay"

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San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge Complex (Calif.). San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge: Final comprehensive conservation plan. Petaluma, CA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011.

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Environmental assessment: Lanphere Dunes Unit : Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Humboldt County, California. Portland, Or: The Service, 1997.

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1, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region. Environmental assessment: Lanphere Dunes Unit : Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Humboldt County, California. Portland, Or: The Service, 1997.

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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Region 1. Environmental assessment: Neskowin Marsh Unit Addition, Nestucca Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Tillamook County, Oregon. Newport, Or: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2000.

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State of the Estuary Conference (8th 2007 Oakland, Calif.). A greener shade of blue?: State of the San Francisco Bay-Delta estuary 2008. [Oakland, Calif.]: San Francisco Estuary Project, 2007.

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Thomas, Vernon G. A critical evaluation of the proposed reduction in the mid-continent lesser snow goose population to conserve sub-arctic salt marshes of Hudson Bay. Sacramento, CA: Animal Protection Institute, 1998.

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Hartmann, Joan R. The impact of Federal programs on wetlands.: A report to congress by the Secretary of the Interior : Vol. II: The Everglades, Coastal Louisiana, Galveston Bay, Puerto Rico, California's Central Valley, Western Riparian Areas, Southeastern and Western Alaska, the Delmarva Peninsula, North Carolina, Northeastern New Jersey, Michigan, and New Jersey. Washington, DC: The Dept., 1994.

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Program, CALFED Bay-Delta. CALFED Bay-Delta Program. [Sacramento, Calif.]: CALFED Bay-Delta Program, 2000.

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Program, CALFED Bay-Delta. CALFED Bay-Delta Program July 2000 final programmatic EIS/EIR: Response to comments document. [Sacramento, Calif.]: The Program, 2000.

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Program, CALFED Bay-Delta. Executive summary: Final programmatic environmental impact statement/environmental impact report. Sacramento, Calif: CALFED Bay-Delta Program, 2000.

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Book chapters on the topic "Wetland conservation Wetland conservation Deep Bay"

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Hobbie, John E., and Neil Bettez. "Climate Forcing at the Arctic LTER Site." In Climate Variability and Ecosystem Response in Long-Term Ecological Research Sites. Oxford University Press, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195150599.003.0011.

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The Arctic LTER site is located at 68º38'N and 149º43'W, at an elevation of 760 m in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range, Alaska. The location, 208 km south of Prudhoe Bay, was chosen for accessibility to the Dalton Highway, which extends along the Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline from north of Fairbanks to Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Ocean (figure 5.1). The rolling foothills at the site are covered with low tundra vegetation (Shaver et al. 1986a), which varies from heaths and lichens in dry sites to sedge tussocks on moist hillslopes to sedge wetlands in valley bottoms and along lakes. Riparian zones often have willow thickets up to 2 m in height. Small lakes are frequent; the best studied such lake is the 25-m-deep Toolik Lake (O’Brien 1992), the center of the LTER research site. Some 14 km from Toolik Lake, the Dalton Highway crosses the fourth-order Kuparuk River, the location of much of the LTER stream research (Peterson et al. 1993). Climate records at Toolik Lake have been kept since the early 1970s when a pipeline construction camp was established. On completion of the road in 1975, climate stations were set up by the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research Laboratory (CRREL, climate reported in Haugan 1982 and Haugen and Brown 1980). Since 1987, the LTER project has maintained climate stations at Toolik Lake (http:// ecosystems.mbl.edu/arc/) whereas the Water Resources Center of the University of Alaska has continuous records beginning in 1985 from nearby Imnavait Creek. An automatic station at Imnavait now reports every few hours to the Natural Resources Conservation Service–Alaska of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. The characteristics of the climate in northern Alaska are summarized by Zhang et al. (1996), who pointed out the strong influence of the ocean during both summer and winter months. They reported that the mean annual air temperature is coldest at the coast (–12.4ºC), where there are strong temperature inversions in the winter, and warmest in the foothills (–8.0ºC). At Toolik Lake, snow covers the ground for about eight months, and some 40% of the total precipitation of 250–350 mm falls as snow.
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