Journal articles: 'Wheat – Flowering time'

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Lee, Jeong Hwan. "Flowering-time Genes and Flowering-time Pathways in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)." Korean Journal of Breeding Science 51, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.9787/kjbs.2019.51.2.65.

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Gupta, Priyanka, Hafssa Kabbaj, Khaoula El Hassouni, Marco Maccaferri, Miguel Sanchez-Garcia, Roberto Tuberosa, and Filippo Maria Bassi. "Genomic Regions Associated with the Control of Flowering Time in Durum Wheat." Plants 9, no. 12 (November 24, 2020): 1628. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9121628.

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Flowering time is a critical stage for crop development as it regulates the ability of plants to adapt to an environment. To understand the genetic control of flowering time, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted to identify the genomic regions associated with the control of this trait in durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). A total of 96 landraces and 288 modern lines were evaluated for days to heading, growing degree days, and accumulated day length at flowering across 13 environments spread across Morocco, Lebanon, Mauritania, and Senegal. These environments were grouped into four pheno-environments based on temperature, day length, and other climatic variables. Genotyping with a 35K Axiom array generated 7652 polymorphic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in addition to 3 KASP markers associated with known flowering genes. In total, 32 significant QTLs were identified in both landraces and modern lines. Some QTLs had a strong association with already known regulatory photoperiod genes, Ppd-A and Ppd-B, and vernalization genes Vrn-A1 and VrnA7. However, these loci explained only 5% to 20% of variance for days to heading. Seven QTLs overlapped between the two germplasm groups in which Q.ICD.Eps-03 and Q.ICD.Vrn-15 consistently affected flowering time in all the pheno-environments, while Q.ICD.Eps-09 and Q.ICD.Ppd-10 were significant only in two pheno-environments and the combined analysis across all environments. These results help clarify the genetic mechanism controlling flowering time in durum wheat and show some clear distinctions to what is known for common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

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Johansson, Eva, Petter Oscarson, and Tomas Lundborg. "Effect of planting date on flowering time in wheat." Physiologia Plantarum 96, no. 2 (February 1996): 338–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3054.1996.960226.x.

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Johansson, Eva, Petter Oscarson, and Tomas Lundborg. "Effect of planting date on flowering time in wheat." Physiologia Plantarum 96, no. 2 (February 1996): 338–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1996.tb00223.x.

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Flohr, B. M., J. R. Hunt, J. A. Kirkegaard, J. R. Evans, and J. M. Lilley. "Genotype × management strategies to stabilise the flowering time of wheat in the south-eastern Australian wheatbelt." Crop and Pasture Science 69, no. 6 (2018): 547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp18014.

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Growers in the wheatbelt of south-eastern Australia need increases in water-limited potential yield (PYw) in order to remain competitive in a changing climate and with declining terms of trade. In drought-prone regions, flowering time is a critical determinant of yield for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Flowering time is a function of the interaction between management (M, establishment date), genotype (G, development rate) and prevailing seasonal conditions. Faced with increasing farm size and declining autumn rainfall, growers are now sowing current fast-developing spring wheat cultivars too early. In order to widen the sowing window and ensure optimum flowering dates for maximum yield, new G × M strategies need to be identified and implemented. This study examined the effect of manipulating genotype (winter vs spring wheat and long vs short coleoptile) and management (sowing date, fallow length and sowing depth) interventions on yield and flowering date in high-, medium- and low-rainfall zones in south-eastern Australia. Twelve strategies were simulated at nine sites over the period 1990–2016. At all sites, the highest yielding strategies involved winter wheats with long coleoptiles established on stored subsoil moisture from the previous rotation, and achieved a mean yield increase of 1200 kg/ha or 42% relative to the baseline strategy. The results show promise for winter wheats with long coleoptiles to widen the sowing window, remove the reliance on autumn rainfall for early establishment and thus stabilise flowering and maximise yield. This study predicts that G × M strategies that stabilise flowering may increase PYw.

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JONES, H. E., M. LUKAC, B. BRAK, M. MARTINEZ-EIXARCH, A. ALHOMEDHI, M. J. GOODING, L. U. WINGEN, and S. GRIFFITHS. "Photoperiod sensitivity affects flowering duration in wheat." Journal of Agricultural Science 155, no. 1 (June 1, 2016): 32–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859616000125.

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SUMMARYFlowering and successful pollination in wheat are key determinants of both quantity and quality of grain. Bread wheat line ‘Paragon’, introgressed with single or multiple daylength insensitivity alleles was used to dissect the effects on the timing and duration of flowering within a hierarchical plant architecture. Flowering of wheat plants was observed in a series of pot-based and field experiments. Ppd-D1a was the most potent known allele affecting the timing of flowering, requiring the least thermal time to flowering across all experiments. The duration of flowering for individual lines was dominated by the shift in the start of flowering in later tillers and the number of tillers per plant, rather than variation in flowering duration of individual spikes. There was a strong relationship between flowering duration and the start of flowering with the earliest lines flowering for the longest. The greatest flowering overlap between tillers was recorded for the Ppd-1b. Across all lines, a warmer environment significantly reduced the duration of flowering and the influence of Ppd-1a alleles on the start of flowering. These findings provide evidence of pleiotropic effects of the Ppd-1a alleles, and have direct implications for breeding for increased stress resilient wheat varieties.

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Fernández-Calleja, Miriam, Ana M. Casas, and Ernesto Igartua. "Major flowering time genes of barley: allelic diversity, effects, and comparison with wheat." Theoretical and Applied Genetics 134, no. 7 (May 9, 2021): 1867–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00122-021-03824-z.

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Abstract Key message This review summarizes the allelic series, effects, interactions between genes and with the environment, for the major flowering time genes that drive phenological adaptation of barley. Abstract The optimization of phenology is a major goal of plant breeding addressing the production of high-yielding varieties adapted to changing climatic conditions. Flowering time in cereals is regulated by genetic networks that respond predominately to day length and temperature. Allelic diversity at these genes is at the basis of barley wide adaptation. Detailed knowledge of their effects, and genetic and environmental interactions will facilitate plant breeders manipulating flowering time in cereal germplasm enhancement, by exploiting appropriate gene combinations. This review describes a catalogue of alleles found in QTL studies by barley geneticists, corresponding to the genetic diversity at major flowering time genes, the main drivers of barley phenological adaptation: VRN-H1 (HvBM5A), VRN-H2 (HvZCCTa-c), VRN-H3 (HvFT1), PPD-H1 (HvPRR37), PPD-H2 (HvFT3), and eam6/eps2 (HvCEN). For each gene, allelic series, size and direction of QTL effects, interactions between genes and with the environment are presented. Pleiotropic effects on agronomically important traits such as grain yield are also discussed. The review includes brief comments on additional genes with large effects on phenology that became relevant in modern barley breeding. The parallelisms between flowering time allelic variation between the two most cultivated Triticeae species (barley and wheat) are also outlined. This work is mostly based on previously published data, although we added some new data and hypothesis supported by a number of studies. This review shows the wide variety of allelic effects that provide enormous plasticity in barley flowering behavior, which opens new avenues to breeders for fine-tuning phenology of the barley crop.

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Sun, Ci, Michael B. Ashworth, Ken Flower, Martin M. Vila-Aiub, Roberto Lujan Rocha, and Hugh J. Beckie. "The adaptive value of flowering time in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 69, no. 2 (January 26, 2021): 203–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2021.5.

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AbstractHarvest weed seed control (HWSC) is a weed management technique that intercepts and destroys weed seeds before they replenish the soil weed seedbank and can be used to control herbicide-resistant weeds in global cropping systems. Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) is a problematic, globally distributed weed species that is considered highly susceptible to HWSC, as it retains much of its seed on the plant during grain harvest. However, previous studies have demonstrated that R. raphanistrum is capable of adapting its life cycle, in particular its flowering time, to allow individuals more time to mature and potentially shed seeds before harvest, thereby evading HWSC interception. This study compared the vegetative growth plus physiological and ecological fitness of an early-flowering R. raphanistrum biotype with an unselected genetically related biotype to determine whether physiological costs of early flowering exist when in competition with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Early flowering time adaptation in R. raphanistrum did not change the relative growth rate or competitive ability of R. raphanistrum. However, the height of first flower was reduced in the early flowering time–selected population, indicating that this population would retain more pods below the typical harvest cutting height (15 cm) used in HWSC. The presence of wheat competition (160 to 200 plants m−2) increased flowering height in the early flowering time–selected population, which would likely increase the susceptibility of early-flowering R. raphanistrum plants to HWSC. Overall, early-flowering adaption in R. raphanistrum is a possible strategy to escape being captured by the HWSC; however, increasing crop competition is likely to be an effective strategy to maintain the effectiveness of HWSC.

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LAW, C. N., and A. J. WORLAND. "Genetic analysis of some flowering time and adaptive traits in wheat." New Phytologist 137, no. 1 (September 1997): 19–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.1997.00814.x.

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Wang, Bin, De Li Liu, Senthold Asseng, Ian Macadam, and Qiang Yu. "Impact of climate change on wheat flowering time in eastern Australia." Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 209-210 (September 2015): 11–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.04.028.

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Pánková, K., Z. Milec, M. Leverington-Waite, S. Chebotar, and J. W. Snape. "Characterization of inter-varietal chromosome substitution lines of wheat using molecular markers." Czech Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 44, No. 1 (March 28, 2008): 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/1329-cjgpb.

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Several sets of wheat inter-varietal chromosome substitution lines (SLs) have been produced over the last fifty years at the CRI (formerly RICP) in Prague-Ruzyně, based on cytogenetic manipulations using aneuploids. Lines with defined genes have been obtained which significantly influence growth habit and flowering time and these have been used particularly in the study of the genetics and physiology of flowering. The sets of lines include substitutions of homoeologous group 5 chromosomes carrying Vrn genes that control vernalisation response, homoeologous group 2 chromosomes with Ppd genes controlling photoperiodic sensitivity, and some other substitutions, particularly those with chromosome 3B of the Czech alternative variety Česká Přesívka where a novel flowering time effect was located. Although the phenotypic and cytological analysis of substitution lines has been continually carried out during backcrossing generations, only the use of molecular markers can allow an unambiguous characterization to verify that substitutions are correct and complete. This analysis has allowed incorrect substitutions or partial substitutions to be identified and discarded. This paper summarizes the results of recent molecular checks of the substitution line collections at CRI.

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Arjona, Jose M., Dolors Villegas, Karim Ammar, Susanne Dreisigacker, Christian Alfaro, and Conxita Royo. "The Effect of Photoperiod Genes and Flowering Time on Yield and Yield Stability in Durum Wheat." Plants 9, no. 12 (December 7, 2020): 1723. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9121723.

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This study analysed the effect of flowering time as influenced by photoperiod sensitivity genes on yield and yield stability in durum wheat. Twenty-three spring genotypes harbouring different allele combinations at Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1 were grown in 15 field experiments at three sites at latitudes from 41° to 19° N (Spain, Mexico-North and Mexico-South). Low temperature and solar radiation before flowering and long day length during grain-filling characteristic for the Spanish site resulted in high grain number/m2 (GN) and yield (GY), while a moderate GN combined with high solar radiation during grain-filling at Mexico-North led to heavier grains. Allele combination GS100-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1a reduced the flowering time up to nine days when compared with Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1a. Differences in flowering time caused by Ppd-A1/Ppd-B1 allele combinations did not affect yield. Combinations GS105-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1b and Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1b resulted in the highest GN, linked to spikelets/spike, which was higher in GS105-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1b due to more grains/spikelet. Flowering time caused by Eps had a minor effect on GN, spikes/m2 and grains/spike, but late flowering resulted in reduced grain weight and GY. Allele combinations harbouring alleles conferring a similar photoperiod sensitivity response at Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1 resulted in greater yield stability than combinations that carry alleles conferring a different response. Allele combination GS100-Ppd-A1a/Ppd-B1a was the most suitable in terms of yield and yield stability of durum wheat cultivated under irrigation within the studied latitudes.

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YIN, X. G., J. E. OLESEN, M. WANG, I. ÖZTÜRK, and F. CHEN. "Climate effects on crop yields in the Northeast Farming Region of China during 1961–2010." Journal of Agricultural Science 154, no. 7 (March 28, 2016): 1190–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859616000149.

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SUMMARYCrop production in the Northeast Farming Region of China (NFR) is affected considerably by variation in climatic conditions. Data on crop yield and weather conditions from a number of agro-meteorological stations in NFR were used in a mixed linear model to evaluate the impacts of climatic variables on the yield of maize (Zea mays L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in different crop growth phases. The crop growing season was divided into three growth phases based on the average crop phenological dates from records covering 1981 and 2010 at each station, comprising pre-flowering (from sowing to just prior to flowering), flowering (20 days around flowering) and post-flowering (10 days after flowering to maturity). The climatic variables were mean minimum temperature, thermal time (which is used to indicate changes in the length of growth cycles), average daily solar radiation, accumulated precipitation, aridity index (which is used to assess drought stress) and heat degree-days index (HDD) (which is used to indicate heat stress) were calculated for each growth phase and year. Over the 1961–2010 period, the minimum temperature increased significantly in each crop growth phase, the thermal time increased significantly in the pre-flowering phase of each crop and in the post-flowering phases of maize, rice and soybean, and HDD increased significantly in the pre-flowering phase of soybean and wheat. Average solar radiation decreased significantly in the pre-flowering phase of all four crops and in the flowering phase of soybean and wheat. Precipitation increased during the pre-flowering phase leading to less aridity, whereas reduced precipitation in the flowering and post-flowering phases enhanced aridity. Statistical analyses indicated that higher minimum temperature was beneficial for maize, rice and soybean yields, whereas increased temperature reduced wheat yield. Higher solar radiation in the pre-flowering phase was beneficial for maize yield, in the post-flowering phase for wheat yield, whereas higher solar radiation in the flowering phase reduced rice yield. Increased aridity in the pre-flowering and flowering phases severely reduced maize yield, higher aridity in the flowering and post-flowering phases reduced rice yield, and aridity in all growth phases reduced soybean and wheat yields. Higher HDD in all growth phases reduced maize and soybean yield and HDD in the pre-flowering phase reduced rice yield. Such effects suggest that projected future climate change may have marked effects on crop yield through effects of several climatic variables, calling for adaptation measures such as breeding and changes in crop, soil and agricultural water management.

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Simard, Marie-Josée, and Anne Légère. "Synchrony of flowering between canola and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 52, no. 6 (December 2004): 905–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-03-145r.

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Many conditions need to be satisfied for gene flow to occur between a transgenic crop and its weedy relatives. Flowering overlap is one essential requirement for hybrid formation. Hybridization can occur between canola and its wild relative, wild radish. We studied the effects of wild radish plant density and date of emergence, canola (glyphosate resistant) planting dates, presence of other weeds, and presence of a wheat crop on the synchrony of flowering between wild radish and canola (as a crop and volunteer). Four field experiments were conducted from 2000 to 2002 in St-David de Lévis, Québec. Flowering periods of wild radish emerging after glyphosate application overlapped with early-, intermediate-, and late-seeded canola 14, 26, and 55%, respectively, of the total flowering time. Flowering periods of early-emerging wild radish and canola volunteers in uncropped treatments overlapped from mid-June until the end of July, ranging from 26 to 81% of the total flowering time. Flowering periods of wild radish and canola volunteers emerging synchronously on May 30 or June 5 as weeds in wheat overlapped 88 and 42%, respectively, of their total flowering time. For later emergence dates, few flowers or seeds were produced by both species because of wheat competition. Wild radish density in canola and wild radish and canola volunteer densities in wheat did not affect the mean flowering dates of wild radish or canola. Increasing wild radish density in uncropped plots (pure or weedy stands) hastened wild radish flowering. Our results show that if hybridization is to happen, it will be most likely with uncontrolled early-emerging weeds in crops or on roadsides, field margins, and uncultivated areas, stressing the need to control the early flush of weeds, weedy relatives, and crop volunteers in noncrop areas.

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Liu, Hong, Tian Li, Yamei Wang, Jun Zheng, Huifang Li, Chenyang Hao, and Xueyong Zhang. "TaZIM‐A1 negatively regulates flowering time in common wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.)." Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 61, no. 3 (December 17, 2018): 359–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jipb.12720.

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Iqbal, Muhammad, Alireza Navabi, Donald F. Salmon, Rong-Cai Yang, Brenda M. Murdoch, Steve S. Moore, and Dean Spaner. "Genetic analysis of flowering and maturity time in high latitude spring wheat." Euphytica 154, no. 1-2 (November 1, 2006): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-006-9289-y.

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Lin, F., S. L. Xue, D. G. Tian, C. J. Li, Y. Cao, Z. Z. Zhang, C. Q. Zhang, and Z. Q. Ma. "Mapping chromosomal regions affecting flowering time in a spring wheat RIL population." Euphytica 164, no. 3 (June 6, 2008): 769–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-008-9724-3.

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Riffkin, P. A., P. M. Evans, J. F. Chin, and G. A. Kearney. "Early-maturing spring wheat outperforms late-maturing winter wheat in the high rainfall environment of south-western Victoria." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 54, no. 2 (2003): 193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar02081.

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The aim of this experiment was to identify suitable cultivars and sowing times for winter and spring wheat types in the high rainfall environment of south-western Victoria. Spring and winter wheat cultivars with a range of flowering times were sown at 3 (April–June) and 6 (April–September) sowing times in 1997 and 1999, respectively, at Hamilton. Strong cultivar × sowing time interactions occurred. Grain yields ranged from 0.3 t/ha for a winter wheat (cv. Declic) sown in September to 8 t/ha for a spring wheat (cv. Silverstar) sown in June. The early-maturing spring wheat cultivar Silverstar, initially bred for the lower rainfall Mallee environment, produced the highest yields in both years from all sowing times except April. Our data indicate that higher yields are achieved from crops that flower earlier than is currently recommended. The optimum flowering period in south-western Victoria needs to be redefined, especially since many crops are now sown on raised beds.

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Aiqing, Sun, Impa Somayanda, Sunoj Valiaparambil Sebastian, Kanwardeep Singh, Kulvinder Gill, P. V. V. Prasad, and S. V. Krishna Jagadish. "Heat Stress during Flowering Affects Time of Day of Flowering, Seed Set, and Grain Quality in Spring Wheat." Crop Science 58, no. 1 (January 2018): 380–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2017.04.0221.

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Manupeerapan, T., JL Davidson, CJ Pearson, and KR Christian. "Differences in flowering responses of wheat to temperature and photoperiod." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 43, no. 3 (1992): 575. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9920575.

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Apex and ear development were studied in one spring wheat (Hartog) and five winter wheats (Rosella, Maris Templar, Maris Huntsman, Priboy and Krasnodar 39) subjected to vernalizing or non-vernalizing temperatures under either short or long photoperiods until ear initiation (double ridges), followed by either short or long photoperiods until ear emergence. Hartog produced ears in all treatments, and it initiated ears faster than winter varieties in all treatments. Four types of winter wheat were distinguished by their mandatory requirements for ear development. The only winter variety to reach ear emergence without vernalization was Maris Templar; short days were an effective substitute provided that long days were experienced after ear initiation. In Priboy, photoperiod was unimportant both before and after ear initiation. Maris Huntsman and Rosella required long photoperiods after initiation, whereas Krasnodar 39 required long days during vernalization. If these conditions were not met, either the shoot apexes died without producing a terminal spikelet or the ears died before emerging. Plants in all treatments which reached ear emergence proceeded normally to maturity. The suitability of the different types for particular regions is discussed. All varieties in all treatments initiated ears when the shoot apex reached a volume of about 0.13 mm3. Relative growth rates of the apex, related to thermal time, were constant during the vegetative phase; they determined the time to ear initiation and, through it, controlled the time of ear emergence. Differences between varieties in their basic vegetative period are attributed to differences in the relative growth rates of their vegetative apexes. These growth rates were much lower in winter wheats than in the spring variety, but increased sharply in them at or just before the first visible signs of initiation in those treatments which allowed normal development. Vernalization was not the cause of this accelerated growth. In winter wheats, vernalization promoted faster initiation of ears, and hence flowering, and the survival and normal development of initiated ears. It is suggested that vernalization acts by reducing the effectiveness of an inhibitor of cell division.

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Bloomfield, Maxwell T., James R. Hunt, Ben Trevaskis, Kerrie Ramm, and Jessica Hyles. "Ability of alleles of PPD1 and VRN1 genes to predict flowering time in diverse Australian wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivars in controlled environments." Crop and Pasture Science 69, no. 11 (2018): 1061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp18102.

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Flowering time of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a critical determinant of grain yield. Frost, drought and heat stresses from either overly early or overly late flowering can inflict significant yield penalties. The ability to predict time of flowering from different sowing dates for diverse cultivars across environments in Australia is important for maintaining yield as autumn rainfall events become less reliable. However, currently there are no models that can accurately do this when new cultivars are released. Two major Photoperiod1 and three Vernalisation1 development genes, with alleles identified by molecular markers, are known to be important in regulating phasic development and therefore time to anthesis, in response to the environmental factors of temperature and photoperiod. Allelic information from molecular markers has been used to parameterise models that could predict flowering time, but it is uncertain how much variation in flowering time can be explained by different alleles of the five major genes. This experiment used 13 elite commercial cultivars of wheat, selected for their variation in phenology and in turn allelic variation at the major development genes, and 13 near-isogenic lines (NILs) with matching multi-locus genotypes for the major development genes, to quantify how much response in time to flowering could be explained by alleles of the major genes. Genotypes were grown in four controlled environments at constant temperature of 22°C with factorial photoperiod (long or short day) and vernalisation (±) treatments applied. NILs were able to explain a large proportion of the variation of thermal time to flowering in elite cultivars in the long-day environment with no vernalisation (97%), a moderate amount in the short-day environment with no vernalisation (62%), and less in the short-day (51%) and long-day (47%) environments with vernalisation. Photoperiod was found to accelerate development, as observed in a reduction in phyllochron, thermal time to heading, thermal time to flowering, and decreased final leaf numbers. Vernalisation response was not as great, and rates of development in most genotypes were not significantly increased. The results indicate that the alleles of the five major development genes alone cannot explain enough variation in flowering time to be used to parameterise gene-based models that will be accurate in simulating flowering time under field conditions. Further understanding of the genetics of wheat development, particularly photoperiod response, is required before a model with genetically based parameter estimates can be deployed to assist growers to make sowing-time decisions for new cultivars.

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Huang, Xin, Wenquan Zhu, Xiaoying Wang, Pei Zhan, Qiufeng Liu, Xueying Li, and Lixin Sun. "A Method for Monitoring and Forecasting the Heading and Flowering Dates of Winter Wheat Combining Satellite-Derived Green-up Dates and Accumulated Temperature." Remote Sensing 12, no. 21 (October 28, 2020): 3536. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12213536.

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Heading and flowering are two key phenological stages in the growth process of winter wheat. It is of great significance for agricultural management and scientific research to accurately monitor and forecast the heading and flowering dates of winter wheat. However, the monitoring accuracy of existing methods based on remote sensing needs to be improved, and these methods cannot realize forecasting in advance. This study proposed an accumulated temperature method (ATM) for monitoring and forecasting the heading and flowering dates of winter wheat from the perspective of thermal requirements for crop growth. The ATM method consists of three key procedures: (1) extracting the green-up date of winter wheat as the starting point of temperature accumulation with the dynamic threshold method from remotely sensed vegetation index (VI) time-series data, (2) calculating the accumulated temperature and determining the thermal requirements from the green-up date to the heading date or the flowering date based on phenology observation samples, and (3) combining the satellite-derived green-up date, daily temperature data, and thermal requirements to monitor and forecast the heading date and flowering date of winter wheat. When applying the ATM method to winter wheat in the North China Plain during 2017–2019, the root mean square error (RMSE) for the estimated heading date was between 4.76 and 6.13 d and the RMSE for the estimated flowering date was between 5.30 and 6.41 d. By contrast, the RMSE for the heading and flowering dates estimated by the widely used maximum vegetation index method was approximately 10 d. Furthermore, the forecasting accuracy of the ATM method was also high, and the RMSE was approximately 6 d. In summary, the proposed ATM method can be used to accurately monitor and forecast the heading and flowering dates of winter wheat in large spatial scales and it performs better than the existing maximum vegetation index method.

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ROYO, C., S. DREISIGACKER, C. ALFARO, K. AMMAR, and D. VILLEGAS. "Effect of Ppd-1 genes on durum wheat flowering time and grain filling duration in a wide range of latitudes." Journal of Agricultural Science 154, no. 4 (August 4, 2015): 612–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859615000507.

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SUMMARYUnderstanding the effect of genetic factors controlling flowering time is essential to fine-tune crop development to each target environment and to maximize yield. A set of 35 durum wheat genotypes of spring growth-habit involving different allelic combinations at Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1 genes was grown for 2 years at four sites at latitudes ranging from 19°N to 41°N. The emergence-flowering period was reduced from north to south. The frequency in the collection of the insensitive allele GS-105 at Ppd-A1 was greater (34%) than that of allele GS-100 (20%). Genotypes that flowered earlier due to the presence of alleles causing photoperiod insensitivity extended their grain-filling period, but less than the shortening in flowering time. The effect of the allele conferring photoperiod sensitivity at Ppd-A1 was stronger than that at Ppd-B1 (Ppd-A1b > Ppd-B1b). The effect of photoperiod insensitivity alleles was classified as GS-100 > GS-105 > Ppd-B1a. The phenotypic expression of alleles conferring photoperiod insensitivity at Ppd-A1 increased at sites with average day length from emergence to flowering lower than 12 h. An interaction effect was found between Ppd-A1 and Ppd-B1. Differences between allelic combinations in flowering time accounted for c. 66% of the variability induced by the genotype effect, with the remaining 34% being explained by genes controlling earliness per se. The shortest flowering time across sites corresponded to the allelic combination GS-100/Ppd-B1a, which reduced flowering time by 11 days irrespective of the Ppd-A1b/Ppd-B1b combination. The current study marks a further step towards elucidation of the phenotypic expression of genes regulating photoperiod sensitivity and their interaction with the environment.

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Loss, SP, MW Perry, and WK Anderson. "Flowering times of wheats in south-western Australia: a modelling approach." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 41, no. 2 (1990): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9900213.

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The time of flowering is important for the yield of wheat crops in south-western Australia, where the risk of frost damage and the onset of drought can occur in the same month. Relationships to predict the time from sowing to flowering were derived by linear regression of duration on mean temperature and photoperiod for 11 cultivars. The models were tested against independent observations of flowering measured in time-of-sowing experiments conducted at five locations over three years. The model accounted for 71-95% of the variation in the independent observations of duration from sowing to flowering. The slopes of the regressions of observed versus predicted values were always less than 1.0, significantly so for four cultivars (P<0.01). The mean deviation of the predicted from the observed varied from 2 to 10 days, depending on the cultivar, site and year. The model was used to examine the effects of seasonal variation, sowing time and location on the flowering times of early, mid-season and semi-winter cultivars in south-western Australia. Predictions over sites, sowing dates and years demonstrated that widely differing developmental patterns may be required to exploit the range of environments and sowing dates in the Western Australian wheatbelt. The durations from sowing to flowering for mid-season and semi-winter cultivars were less affected by the variation in temperature than cultivars with rapid development patterns, and the variation in flowering times between cultivars was smaller at cool locations than at warm sites. The use of the model for farmers and breeders is indicated.

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Tóth, B., G. Galiba, E. Fehér, J. Sutka, and J. W. Snape. "Mapping genes affecting flowering time and frost resistance on chromosome 5B of wheat." Theoretical and Applied Genetics 107, no. 3 (May 7, 2003): 509–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00122-003-1275-3.

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Pánková, Kateřina, Zbyněk Milec, James Simmonds, Michelle Leverington-Waite, Lesley Fish, and John W. Snape. "Genetic mapping of a new flowering time gene on chromosome 3B of wheat." Euphytica 164, no. 3 (June 8, 2008): 779–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-008-9727-0.

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Kamran, Atif, Muhammad Iqbal, and Dean Spaner. "Flowering time in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): a key factor for global adaptability." Euphytica 197, no. 1 (February 11, 2014): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-014-1075-7.

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Wright, Tally I. C., Angela C. Burnett, Howard Griffiths, Maxime Kadner, James S. Powell, Hugo R. Oliveira, and Fiona J. Leigh. "Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Relating to Flowering Time, Flag Leaf and Awn Characteristics in a Novel Triticum dicoccum Mapping Population." Plants 9, no. 7 (July 2, 2020): 829. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9070829.

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Tetraploid landraces of wheat harbour genetic diversity that could be introgressed into modern bread wheat with the aid of marker-assisted selection to address the genetic diversity bottleneck in the breeding genepool. A novel bi-parental Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum Schrank mapping population was created from a cross between two landrace accessions differing for multiple physiological traits. The population was phenotyped for traits hypothesised to be proxies for characteristics associated with improved photosynthesis or drought tolerance, including flowering time, awn length, flag leaf length and width, and stomatal and trichome density. The mapping individuals and parents were genotyped with the 35K Wheat Breeders’ single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. A genetic linkage map was constructed from 104 F4 individuals, consisting of 2066 SNPs with a total length of 3295 cM and an average spacing of 1.6 cM. Using the population, 10 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for five traits were identified in two years of trials. Three consistent QTLs were identified over both trials for awn length, flowering time and flag leaf width, on chromosomes 4A, 7B and 5B, respectively. The awn length and flowering time QTLs correspond with the major loci Hd and Vrn-B3, respectively. The identified marker-trait associations could be developed for marker-assisted selection, to aid the introgression of diversity from a tetraploid source into modern wheat for potential physiological trait improvement.

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Rummana, S., AKMR Amin, MS Islam, and GM Faruk. "Effect of Irrigation and Mulch Materials on Growth and Yield of Wheat." Bangladesh Agronomy Journal 21, no. 1 (December 24, 2018): 71–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/baj.v21i1.39362.

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An experiment was carried out in Agronomy field of Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka to find out the performance of wheat (var. BARI Gom 27) as influenced by time of irrigation and different mulch materials during 2015-2016. Four levels of irrigation viz. control, one irrigation at CRI (crown root initiation) stage, one irrigation at flowering stage and two irrigations each at CRI + flowering stage; and four different mulch materials viz. control, rice straw, rice husk and plastic sheets were considered as treatment variables. The experiment was laid out in a split- plot design with three replications, assigning irrigation to main plot and mulch materials to sub plots. Results showed that time of irrigation and different mulch materials had significant effect on plant characters, yield and yield components of wheat. Two irrigations given at CRI + flowering stage resulted with significantly higher plant height, number of spikelets spike-1, number of grains spike-1, 1000- grain weight, grain yield, straw yield and harvest index over one irrigation and control plots. Among mulch materials, black plastic mulch resulted with significantly higher grain yield of wheat. The highest grains (4.15 t ha-1) and straw yields (4.25 t ha-1) were obtained with two irrigations at CRI and flowering stage with black plastic mulch for achieving higher productivity. Bangladesh Agron. J. 2018, 21(1): 71-76

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KUMAR, SUSHIL, VISHAKHA SHARMA, SWATI CHAUDHARY, ANSHIKA TYAGI, POONAM MISHRA, ANUPAMA PRIYADARSHINI, and ANUPAM SINGH. "Genetics of flowering time in bread wheat Triticum aestivum: complementary interaction between vernalization-insensitive and photoperiod-insensitive mutations imparts very early flowering habit to spring wheat." Journal of Genetics 91, no. 1 (April 2012): 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12041-012-0149-3.

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Putterill, Joanna, Lulu Zhang, Chin Chin Yeoh, Martin Balcerowicz, Mauren Jaudal, and Erika Varkonyi Gasic. "FT genes and regulation of flowering in the legume Medicago truncatula." Functional Plant Biology 40, no. 12 (2013): 1199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp13087.

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Flowering time is an important contributor to plant productivity and yield. Plants integrate flowering signals from a range of different internal and external cues in order to flower and set seed under optimal conditions. Networks of genes controlling flowering time have been uncovered in the flowering models Arabidopsis, wheat, barley and rice. Investigations have revealed important commonalities such as FT genes that promote flowering in all of these plants, as well as regulators that are unique to some of them. FT genes also have functions beyond floral promotion, including acting as floral repressors and having a complex role in woody polycarpic plants such as vines and trees. However, much less is known overall about flowering control in other important groups of plants such as the legumes. This review discusses recent efforts to uncover flowering-time regulators using candidate gene approaches or forward screens for spring early flowering mutants in the legume Medicago truncatula. The results highlight the importance of a Medicago FT gene, FTa1, in flowering-time control. However, the mechanisms by which FTa1 is regulated by environmental signals such as long days (photoperiod) and vernalisation (winter cold) appear to differ from Arabidopsis.

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Anderson, WK, A. Heinrich, and R. Abbotts. "Long-season wheats extend sowing opportunities in the central wheat belt of Western Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 36, no. 2 (1996): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9960203.

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Wheat cultivars and crossbreds with different maturities were tested at a range of sowing times from 1989 to 1991 at 13 sites in the central wheat belt of Western Australia. The aim was to determine if long-season cultivars would allow sowing before mid May, the earliest period estimated by previous studies. Rainfall in the growing season ranged from 176 to 330 mm. Long season cultivars showed the potential to extend the sowing season from early May into late April without loss of yield. Mid-season cultivars reached their maximum yields from sowings in May and short-season cultivars yielded most from late May and early June sowings. The optimum flowering period for the study area over the 3 years was 2-22 September, a period similar to earlier estimates made using only short- and midseason cultivars. It was concluded that, despite considerable variability from year to year both within and between sites, the optimum flowering period did not vary greatly on average and was not greatly affected by the use of long-season cultivars. Sowing after the optimum time resulted in slightly increased grain protein percentages but losses in the value of grain yield would have more than offset increases in the value of grain protein. At the nitrogen rates used in the experiments (80 kg/ha), grain proteins over 11.5% [the minimum for the Australian Hard (AH) grade] were only achieved on average for the long-season AH cultivar Blade at sowing times later than its optimum for yield. The Australian Standard White cultivars, however, mostly achieved 10% protein, an acceptable minimum for that grade, from sowings made at their optimum time. Hectolitre weights fell below the delivery standard of 74 kg/hL in only 3 grain samples. These were all from short-season cultivars sown before their optimum time. Fifteen grain samples from 4 sites contained small grain sievings (2-mm slotted screen) above the delivery standard. Eleven of these samples came from cultivars sown outside their optimum sowing times.

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Ivaničová, Zuzana, Irena Jakobson, Diana Reis, Jan Šafář, Zbyněk Milec, Michael Abrouk, Jaroslav Doležel, Kadri Järve, and Miroslav Valárik. "Characterization of new allele influencing flowering time in bread wheat introgressed from Triticum militinae." New Biotechnology 33, no. 5 (September 2016): 718–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2016.01.008.

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Börner, A., K. Neumann, and B. Kobiljski. "Wheat genetic resources – how to exploit?" Czech Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding 47, Special Issue (October 20, 2011): S43—S48. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/3253-cjgpb.

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It is estimated that world-wide existing germplasm collections contain about 7.5 million accessions of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Wheat (Triticum and Aegilops) represents the biggest group comprising 900 000 accessions. However, such a huge number of accessions is hindering a successful exploitation of the germplasm. The creation of core collections representing a wide spectrum of the genetic variation of the whole assembly may help to overcome the problem. Here we demonstrate the successful utilisation of such a core collection for the identification and molecular mapping of genes (Quantitative Trait Loci) determining the agronomic traits flowering time and grain yield, exploiting a marker-trait-association based technique. Significant marker-trait associations were obtained and are presented. The intrachromosomal location of many of these associations coincided with those of already identified major genes or quantitative trait loci, but others were detected in regions where no known genes have been located to date.

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Yuan, Chen, Hongmei Li, Cheng Qin, Xian Zhang, Qianqian Chen, Pengcheng Zhang, Xiaorui Xu, et al. "Foxtail mosaic virus-induced flowering assays in monocot crops." Journal of Experimental Botany 71, no. 10 (February 15, 2020): 3012–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eraa080.

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Abstract Virus-induced flowering (VIF) exploits RNA or DNA viruses to express flowering time genes to induce flowering in plants. Such plant virus-based tools have recently attracted widespread attention for their fundamental and applied uses in flowering physiology and in accelerating breeding in dicotyledonous crops and woody fruit-trees. We now extend this technology to a monocot grass and a cereal crop. Using a Foxtail mosaic virus (FoMV)-based VIF system, dubbed FoMViF, we showed that expression of florigenic Flowering Locus T (FT) genes can promote early flowering and spikelet development in proso millet, a C4 grass species with potential as a nutritional food and biofuel resource, and in non-vernalized C3 wheat, a major food crop worldwide. Floral and spikelet/grain induction in the two monocot plants was caused by the virally expressed untagged or FLAG-tagged FT orthologs, and the florigenic activity of rice Hd3a was more pronounced than its dicotyledonous counterparts in proso millet. The FoMViF system is easy to use and its efficacy to induce flowering and early spikelet/grain production is high. In addition to proso millet and wheat, we envisage that FoMViF will be also applicable to many economically important monocotyledonous food and biofuel crops.

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Gomez-Macpherson, H., and RA Richards. "Effect of sowing time on yield and agronomic characteristics of wheat in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 46, no. 7 (1995): 1381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9951381.

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The main environmental constraints to the yield of dryland wheat in south-eastern Australia are: a low and erratic rainfall throughout the growing season, the chance of frost at flowering time, and high temperatures during the grain-filling period. The aims of this work were threefold. Firstly, to determine which sowing period minimizes these constraints and results in the highest yields. Secondly, what is the optimum flowering time for a given sowing date so that maximum yield is achieved. The third aim was to determine whether any crop characteristic was associated with high yield or may limit yield in the different sowings. The experiments were conducted at three sites in New South Wales that were representative of dry (Condobolin) and cooler and wetter (Moombooldool, Wagga Wagga) sites in the south-eastern wheatbelt. In this study several sets of isogenic material, involving a total of 23 genotypes, that were similar in all respects except for flowering time, were sown early (mid-April and early May), normal (mid to late May) and late (June to mid July). Characteristics of the highest-yielding lines in each experiment are presented. The average flowering time of the highest yielding lines in all sowings had a range of only 12 days at the driest site, but a range of over 20 days at the coolest and wettest site. The optimum anthesis date (day of year, y) was related to sowing date (day of year, doy) at the cooler sites such that: y = 245+0.32 doy (r2 = 0.86) and at Condobolin, y = 253+0.19 doy (r2 = 0.91). Optimum anthesis date expressed in thermal time (�C days) after sowing (y) was related to sowing time (doy) as follows: y = 2709 -8-3 doy (r2 = 0.84). It is suggested that these relationships are likely to be quite robust and should hold true for similar thermal environments in eastern Australia. There was little variation in grain yield between the earliest sowing in mid-April (108 doy) and sowings throughout May (up to 147 doy). Grain yield declined 1.3% per day that sowing was delayed after late May. Aboveground biomass was substantially higher in early sown crops. However, this did not translate into higher yields. From the evidence presented it is argued that the principal reason that greater yields were not obtained in the early sowings, particularly in the April sowing, was the greater competition for assimilates between the growing spike and the elongating stem. It is suggested that a way of overcoming this competition is to genetically shorten the stems of winter wheats. This should capitalize on the considerable advantages in terms of water use efficiency that early sowing offers and result in greater yields. Barley yellow dwarf virus, although present at the cooler, wettest site in one year, was more frequent in the later sowings than in the early sowing and was not likely to have contributed to the lower than expected yields in the early sowings.

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Hu, Rui, Jie Xiao, Qian Zhang, Ting Gu, Junli Chang, Guangxiao Yang, and Guangyuan He. "A light-regulated gene, TaLWD1L-A, affects flowering time in transgenic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)." Plant Science 299 (October 2020): 110623. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110623.

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Stepanenko, I. L., O. G. Smirnov, and I. I. Titov. "A model of the gene network for flowering time regulation in winter wheat and barley." Russian Journal of Genetics: Applied Research 2, no. 4 (July 2012): 319–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s2079059712040107.

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Trkulja, Dragana, Ankica Kondic-Spika, Ljiljana Brbaklic, and Borislav Kobiljski. "Marker-trait association analysis for heading and flowering time in wheat by Single Marker Regression." Ratarstvo i povrtarstvo 48, no. 1 (2011): 113–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/ratpov1101113t.

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40

Iqbal, M., A. Navabi, D. F. Salmon, Rong-Cai Yang, and D. Spaner. "A genetic examination of early flowering and maturity in Canadian spring wheat." Canadian Journal of Plant Science 86, no. 4 (October 10, 2006): 995–1004. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/p06-002.

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Under short-season western Canadian growing conditions, vernalization non-responsiveness is generally considered a preferable spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) phenotype, to avoid inconsistent maturity and yield patterns. The objectives of this study were to investigate the genetic factors affecting early flowering and maturity, and related agronomic traits, in a set of five Canadian spring wheat cultivars. The cultivars were first studied under 10- and 16-h photoperiods and 0- and 42-d vernalization treatments. Thereafter, the parents and F1 hybrids from a one-way diallel mating design were grown with and without a 42-d vernalization treatment. Shorter photoperiod delayed flowering time in all cultivars, and increased final leaf number in AC Barrie. Vernalization hastened flowering and decreased final leaf number in AC Foremost and AC Taber. AC Foremost and AC Taber carry at least one different allele, from the rest of the cultivars studied, at the major loci governing vernalization response. Leaf and spikelet number on the main culm, days to anthesis and maturity, tiller number and yield plant-1 were mainly controlled by additive gene action. Narrow-sense heritability was medium to high (0.53–0.93) for final leaf number, days to anthesis, spikelet number and grain yield, but low to medium (0.20–0.71) for days to maturity and tiller number. Selection for early flowering under non-vernalizing conditions may aid in the breeding of (vernalization non-responsive) early-maturing spring wheat cultivars in western Canada. Key words: Diallel cross, earliness, photoperiod, vernalization, Triticum aestivum L.

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Zhuk, O. I. "Productivity of winter wheat plants under drought." Faktori eksperimental'noi evolucii organizmiv 23 (September 9, 2018): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.7124/feeo.v23.991.

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Aim. The goal of research was to study the effects of soil drought on the productivity of winter wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.). Methods. Wheat plants of the cultivars of Zolotocolosa and Astarta were grown under optimal nutrition and moisture to the earing-flowering phase. After the beginning of it the experimental plants were transferred to drought conditions for 8 days, after that the optimal water supply was restored to the end of the vegetation. The yield structure was analyzed in mature plants. Results. It is established that the effect of drought in the critical phase of ontogenesis led to a decrease in plant height, ear size, mass and number of grains in it. At the same time, the number of grains in ears of plants decreased more significantly in the cultivar Zolotocolosa compared to the Astarta, especially in the tillers. The loss of grains mass from the ear was lower in cultivar Zolotocolosa than to the Astarta. Conclusions. Water deficit in the soil in the critical phase of ear-flowering led to a decrease in the productivity of wheat plants due to the inhibition of growth, the laying and the formation elements of the ear and grains, that depended on the specificity of the cultivar. Keywords: Triticum aestivum L., stem, ear, productivity, drought.

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Schoeny, Alexandra, Marie-Hélène Jeuffroy, and Philippe Lucas. "Influence of Take-All Epidemics on Winter Wheat Yield Formation and Yield Loss." Phytopathology® 91, no. 7 (July 2001): 694–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2001.91.7.694.

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The effects of take-all epidemics on winter wheat yield formation were determined, and disease-yield relationships were established to assess the agronomic efficacy and economic benefits of control methods. Epidemics were generated in naturally infested fields by varying cropping season, crop order in the rotation, and experimental fungicide seed treatment. Disease incidence and severity were assessed from tillering to flowering. Yield components were measured at harvest. Models simulating the formation of the yield components in the absence of limiting factors were used to estimate the losses caused by take-all. Losses were predicted by the disease level at a specific time or the area under the disease progress curve, reflecting accumulation during a specific period. Losses of grain number per square meter and 1,000-grain weight were linked to cumulative disease incidence between the beginning of stem elongation and flowering, and disease incidence at midstem elongation, respectively. Yield losses were accounted for by both cumulative disease incidence between sowing and flowering, and disease incidence at midstem elongation. Results confirm the importance of nitrogen fertilization in reducing the impact of take-all on wheat.

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Stasik, O. O. "Influence of drought on the photosynthetic apparatus activity, senescence rate, and productivity in wheat plants." Fiziologia rastenij i genetika 52, no. 5 (October 2020): 371–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/frg2020.05.371.

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Effects of soil drought at flowering stage on the functional state of photosynthetic apparatus and chloroplast enzymatic antioxidant defense systems in flag leaf during reproductive period, and the productivity of winter wheat plants of high-protein Natalka variety and drought-tolerant Podolyanka variety were studied in pot experiment. Until flowering and for the control plants during the entire vegetation, the soil moisture content was maintained at a level of 60—70 % of field capacity (FC). Drought treatment (soil moisture 30 % FC) was applied for 7 days covering flowering—early kernel watery ripe period (BBCH 61—71). After that, watering of plants was resumed to a control level which was maintained until the end of the growing season. The estimation of the chlorophyll and Rubisco content, the chloroplast antioxidant enzymes activity, and the net CO2 assimilation and transpiration rates was carried out on flag leaves. The measurements were taken on the third day of watering cessation (the first day the soil moisture reached 30 % FC, BBCH 61), at the end of the drought period (seventh day at 30 % FC, BBCH 71), and after watering resumed at the medium milk (BBCH 75) and late milk (BBCH 77) stages. The components of plant grain productivity were determined by weighing air-dry material at grain full ripeness. It was revealed, that drought stress during flowering inhibited CO2 assimilation and accelerated induction of senescence processes in wheat plants associated with degradation of photosynthetic apparatus and manifested in quicker ontogenetic drop in chlorophyll and Rubisco contents and loss of leaf photosynthetic activity. This exacerbated the drought impact on the plant organism so that after optimal watering return, the physiological and biochemical parameters were not restored to the values of control plants that were all time under optimal moisture supply. Stress-induced premature senescence reduced the supply of plants with assimilates and ultimately led to a decrease in their grain productivity. Impact of drought on flag leaf photosynthetic activity and especially on senescence induction were much more pronounced in the high-protein wheat variety Natalka with a genetically programmed earlier start of the nitrogen-containing compounds remobilization from leaves than in Podolyanka variety. The drought-tolerant variety Podolyanka keep ability to maintain much higher CO2 assimilation activity during drought period and to preserve photosynthetic apparatus from early induction of senescence due to likely more efficient chloroplast antioxidant defense systems, thereby gaining a better assimilates supply for yield formation.

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Pigolev, Alexey, Dmitry Miroshnichenko, Alexander Pushin, Vasily Terentyev, Alexander Boutanayev, Sergey Dolgov, and Tatyana Savchenko. "Overexpression of Arabidopsis OPR3 in Hexaploid Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Alters Plant Development and Freezing Tolerance." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 19, no. 12 (December 11, 2018): 3989. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19123989.

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Jasmonates are plant hormones that are involved in the regulation of different aspects of plant life, wherein their functions and molecular mechanisms of action in wheat are still poorly studied. With the aim of gaining more insights into the role of jasmonic acid (JA) in wheat growth, development, and responses to environmental stresses, we have generated transgenic bread wheat plants overexpressing Arabidopsis 12-OXOPHYTODIENOATE REDUCTASE 3 (AtOPR3), one of the key genes of the JA biosynthesis pathway. Analysis of transgenic plants showed that AtOPR3 overexpression affects wheat development, including germination, growth, flowering time, senescence, and alters tolerance to environmental stresses. Transgenic wheat plants with high AtOPR3 expression levels have increased basal levels of JA, and up-regulated expression of ALLENE OXIDE SYNTHASE, a jasmonate biosynthesis pathway gene that is known to be regulated by a positive feedback loop that maintains and boosts JA levels. Transgenic wheat plants with high AtOPR3 expression levels are characterized by delayed germination, slower growth, late flowering and senescence, and improved tolerance to short-term freezing. The work demonstrates that genetic modification of the jasmonate pathway is a suitable tool for the modulation of developmental traits and stress responses in wheat.

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Liu, Meiyan, Lei Lei, Fang Miao, Carol Powers, Xiaoyu Zhang, Jungpeng Deng, Million Tadege, Brett F. Carver, and Liuling Yan. "The STENOFOLIA gene from Medicago alters leaf width, flowering time and chlorophyll content in transgenic wheat." Plant Biotechnology Journal 16, no. 1 (June 30, 2017): 186–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pbi.12759.

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46

Zheng, Bangyou, Karine Chenu, and Scott C. Chapman. "Velocity of temperature and flowering time in wheat - assisting breeders to keep pace with climate change." Global Change Biology 22, no. 2 (January 6, 2016): 921–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13118.

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47

Xu, Xiaofeng. "Peer review report 1 On “Impact of climate change on wheat flowering time in eastern Australia”." Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 217 (January 2016): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.01.018.

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Anonymous. "Peer review report 2 On “Impact of climate change on wheat flowering time in eastern Australia”." Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 217 (January 2016): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2016.01.019.

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Hocking, P. J., and M. Stapper. "Effects of sowing time and nitrogen fertiliser on canola and wheat, and nitrogen fertiliser on Indian mustard. II. Nitrogen concentrations, N accumulation, and N fertiliser use efficiency." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52, no. 6 (2001): 635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar00114.

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Canola, Indian mustard, and wheat were grown at Ariah Park and Cowra (canola only) in the cropping belt of New South Wales, Australia, to determine the effects of sowing time (canola and wheat) and nitrogen (N) fertiliser on N concentrations and N accumulation in shoots, N fertiliser use-efficiency, and N removal in grain of the crops. Concentrations of N in shoots of all crops decreased during the season, irrespective of sowing time or N fertiliser rate. Late sowing decreased N accumulation by 55% and 40% for canola and wheat, respectively, at Ariah Park, and by 50% for canola at Cowra, but increased canola and wheat grain N (protein) concentrations more than the applied N. All crops accumulated most of their N before anthesis, and there was little N accumulation after the end of flowering; however, sowing canola late increased the proportion of N accumulated during flowering. Indices of N fertiliser use efficiency were reduced by sowing late, but N use efficiencies of the oilseeds at each sowing time were similar to values for wheat after accounting for differences in the biosynthetic costs of grain and straw production. Removal of N in canola grain from an April sowing was 35% greater than N removal by wheat grain sown at the same time, but was similar for both crops from late May and July sowings. Consequently, more N fertiliser should be applied to canola than wheat to obtain high grain yields when both crops are sown early in the season. It was concluded that sowing early was essential to achieve high N use efficiency, reduce potential losses of N, and maximise economic returns from N fertiliser.

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Davidson, JL, KR Christian, DB Jones, and PM Bremner. "Responses of wheat to vernalization and photoperiod." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 36, no. 3 (1985): 347. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9850347.

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The effects of vernalization and photoperiod on times from planting of seedlings to ear emergence were measured in 68 Australian and 49 overseas varieties of wheat, comprising a broad spectrum of genetic material, in a glasshouse in Canberra (latitude 35�S). Vernalization was carried out by growing germinated seedlings in the dark at 1-2�C for 6 weeks. Long photoperiods (16 h) separated unvernalized plants into two distinct groups, corresponding to commonly recognized spring and winter types. Responses to vernalization were generally small under natural photoperiods (11-15 h), but much more pronounced in long photoperiods, particularly with winter wheats. In a second experiment, 24 varieties of wheat gave widely different responses to vernalization treatments. With 8 weeks' vernalization and long photoperiods, all varieties reached ear emergence within 66 days, but in some winter wheats 4 weeks treatment had little effect and 6 weeks gave incomplete vernalization. Under the conditions of these experiments, Australian wheats showed a wide range of responses to photoperiod and a narrow range of responses to vernalization compared with overseas varieties. The need to investigate the control of flowering time in obtaining varieties suited to the high-rainfall zone of Australia is discussed.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Wheat – Flowering time'

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