Relevant bibliographies by topics / Wikis (Computer science) – Access control – United States

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Academic literature on the topic 'Wikis (Computer science) – Access control – United States'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 25 July 2024
Last updated: 31 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Wikis (Computer science) – Access control – United States"

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Rosenbaum, S., A. Somodevilla, and M. Casoni. "Will EMTALA Be There for People With Pregnancy-related Emergencies?" Obstetric Anesthesia Digest 43, no. 3 (2023): 113–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.aoa.0000946244.38317.d1.

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(N Engl J Med. 2022;387:863–865) The Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA), a statute established in 1986 to prevent hospitals from refusing to treat pregnancy-related emergencies, is important to health care in the United States. The EMTALA statute helps safeguard nondiscriminatory hospital emergency medical access to anyone in need. Following the June 24, 2022, decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, the constitutional right to an abortion was returned to state control. This Supreme Court decision poses the questions as to whether EMTALA will continue to help barricade against state laws that prevent emergent hospital care short of life-threatening situations.
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McHugh, Douglas, Richard Feinn, Jeff McIlvenna, and Matt Trevithick. "A Random Controlled Trial to Examine the Efficacy of Blank Slate: A Novel Spaced Retrieval Tool with Real-Time Learning Analytics." Education Sciences 11, no. 3 (2021): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/educsci11030090.

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Learner-centered coaching and feedback are relevant to various educational contexts. Spaced retrieval enhances long-term knowledge retention. We examined the efficacy of Blank Slate, a novel spaced retrieval software application, to promote learning and prevent forgetting, while gathering and analyzing data in the background about learners’ performance. A total of 93 students from 6 universities in the United States were assigned randomly to control, sequential or algorithm conditions. Participants watched a video on the Republic of Georgia before taking a 60 multiple-choice-question assessment. Sequential (non-spaced retrieval) and algorithm (spaced retrieval) groups had access to Blank Slate and 60 digital cards. The algorithm group reviewed subsets of cards daily based on previous individual performance. The sequential group reviewed all 60 cards daily. All 93 participants were re-assessed 4 weeks later. Sequential and algorithm groups were significantly different from the control group but not from each other with regard to after and delta scores. Blank Slate prevented anticipated forgetting; authentic learning improvement and retention happened instead, with spaced retrieval incurring one-third of the time investment experienced by non-spaced retrieval. Embedded analytics allowed for real-time monitoring of learning progress that could form the basis of helpful feedback to learners for self-directed learning and educators for coaching.
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Ravnyushkin, A. V. "The Legal Issues of Firearms Trafficking in the United States of America." Siberian Law Review 19, no. 4 (2023): 356–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.19073/2658-7602-2022-19-4-356-373.

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Relevance and subject of research. The circulation of firearms as a source of increased danger is subject to legal regulation and control in the Russian Federation. The use of weapons by police officers is no exception. The norms of the Federal Law of February 7, 2011 No. 3-FZ “About the Police” (hereinafter referred to as the Law “About the Police”) refer to the achievements of domestic administrative science as a result of the work of specialists. In systemic connection with the norms of criminal law, they regulate the conditions and limits for the use of coercive measures by police officers, including firearms. The fundamental ideas of the activities of the Russian police have successfully cooperated with the norms of international law. On the contrary, in the socalled “leading” democratic state – the United States of America, such cooperation does not look well-coordinated, which the Author substantiates when studying the origins of the right of citizens of this state to own firearms, the regulatory regulation of the circulation of weapons in the United States, the negative consequences of this regulation (based on research by American scientists and statistical data), the activities of the US police to counter armed attacks and its legal regulation. One of the US attempts to comply with international law in this area is analyzed, namely the adopted new policy of the US Customs and Border Protection on the use of force, including firearms.The purpose of the study is to determine the state of legal regulation of the circulation of civilian firearms in the United States, the use of these weapons as a coercive measure by police officers in order to identify its positive aspects, in the presence of which the decision on the possibility / impossibility of their introduction into Russian legislation. This led to the setting of the following tasks: to study the constitutional foundations of the right to own firearms by US citizens (historical aspect); to determine the current state of legal regulation of civilian circulation of firearms in the United States and its consequences; analyze the activities of the US police to counter armed attacks and its legal regulation, evaluate them and determine the prospects for their improvement; identify the provisions of American legislation that are of scientific interest, and the possibility / impossibility of their implementation in Russian legislation.The methodological basis of the study was a dialectical approach to the scientific knowledge of social relations associated with the circulation of firearms, the implementation of their state regulation, analysis and synthesis of the results obtained during the study, which made it possible to formulate and substantiate the conclusions. Among the special methods used in the study are the method of studying normative legal acts and documents, the empirical method, the method of processing and analyzing data, and their generalization. Findings. The study shows that the constitutional foundations for the right to own firearms by US citizens developed simultaneously with the emergence of statehood: first in individual states, and then in the very union of these states formed into a single US government. The existing multi-layered legal framework for regulating the circulation of firearms has created a wide range of owners with a relatively simple system of access, which negatively affects the criminal environment, in which armed attacks with mass casualties are of high importance. Cases of armed attacks and other negative illegal acts to a certain extent influenced the processes of militarization of the police, the creation and strengthening of special operations units, the adoption by the police of various types of military equipment, weapons and special means. Detailed legal regulation of the use of lethal force by the police is developing belatedly. The 2014 adoption of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Manual did not prompt other law enforcement agencies to adopt similar rules, indicating the fragmentation of U.S. law enforcement. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection Guidelines on the use of force is of particular scientific interest, and after its careful analysis, it is possible to introduce certain provisions into the legal regulation of the activities of the Russian police, especially the use of lethal force. The fundamental ideas of police activity developed in Russia can be recognized as certain guidelines for the development of the American police. The relatively small number of firearm owners in Russia and the high requirements for the circulation of firearms are a deterrent to the negative developments taking place in the United States.
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Abdallah, Abdelrahman M., Mehmet E. Ozbek, and Rebecca A. Atadero. "Transferring Research Innovations in Bridge Inspection Planning to Bridge Inspection Practice: A Qualitative Study." Infrastructures 8, no. 11 (2023): 164. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures8110164.

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Over the last two decades, many researchers have focused on providing new ideas and frameworks to help improve conventional bridge inspection planning approaches, however, little guidance is provided for implementing these new ideas in practice, resulting in limited change. Accordingly, this qualitative study aims to identify the factors that can help improve research products and accelerate research transfer to bridge inspection departments with the goal of enhancing bridge inspection practice. This study used semi-structured interviews, written interviews, and questionnaires for data collection to provide rich results. Responses from twenty-six bridge personnel from state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) across the United States (U.S.) were included in this study. The study found that most participants support a fixed inspection interval over a variable interval since fixed intervals are easier in scheduling and budget planning. Also, participants indicated that the barriers hindering the use of nondestructive techniques are the training required by inspectors, traffic control, and the required access equipment. The study presents the factors change leaders should focus on to facilitate organizational change in DOTs such as enhancing the capacity of DOT staff members and gaining support from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
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Rahman, Wasifur, Masum Hasan, Md Saiful Islam, et al. "Auto-Gait." Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies 7, no. 1 (2022): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3580845.

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Many patients with neurological disorders, such as Ataxia, do not have easy access to neurologists, -especially those living in remote localities and developing/underdeveloped countries. Ataxia is a degenerative disease of the nervous system that surfaces as difficulty with motor control, such as walking imbalance. Previous studies have attempted automatic diagnosis of Ataxia with the help of wearable biomarkers, Kinect, and other sensors. These sensors, while accurate, do not scale efficiently well to naturalistic deployment settings. In this study, we propose a method for identifying ataxic symptoms by analyzing videos of participants walking down a hallway, captured with a standard monocular camera. In a collaboration with 11 medical sites located in 8 different states across the United States, we collected a dataset of 155 videos along with their severity rating from 89 participants (24 controls and 65 diagnosed with or are pre-manifest spinocerebellar ataxias). The participants performed the gait task of the Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA). We develop a computer vision pipeline to detect, track, and separate the participants from their surroundings and construct several features from their body pose coordinates to capture gait characteristics such as step width, step length, swing, stability, speed, etc. Our system is able to identify and track a patient in complex scenarios. For example, if there are multiple people present in the video or an interruption from a passerby. Our Ataxia risk-prediction model achieves 83.06% accuracy and an 80.23% F1 score. Similarly, our Ataxia severity-assessment model achieves a mean absolute error (MAE) score of 0.6225 and a Pearson's correlation coefficient score of 0.7268. Our model competitively performed when evaluated on data from medical sites not used during training. Through feature importance analysis, we found that our models associate wider steps, decreased walking speed, and increased instability with greater Ataxia severity, which is consistent with previously established clinical knowledge. Furthermore, we are releasing the models and the body-pose coordinate dataset to the research community - the largest dataset on ataxic gait (to our knowledge). Our models could contribute to improving health access by enabling remote Ataxia assessment in non-clinical settings without requiring any sensors or special cameras. Our dataset will help the computer science community to analyze different characteristics of Ataxia and to develop better algorithms for diagnosing other movement disorders.
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Charpignon, Marie-Laure, Leo Anthony Celi, Marisa Cobanaj, et al. "Diversity and inclusion: A hidden additional benefit of Open Data." PLOS Digital Health 3, no. 7 (2024): e0000486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000486.

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The recent imperative by the National Institutes of Health to share scientific data publicly underscores a significant shift in academic research. Effective as of January 2023, it emphasizes that transparency in data collection and dedicated efforts towards data sharing are prerequisites for translational research, from the lab to the bedside. Given the role of data access in mitigating potential bias in clinical models, we hypothesize that researchers who leverage open-access datasets rather than privately-owned ones are more diverse. In this brief report, we proposed to test this hypothesis in the transdisciplinary and expanding field of artificial intelligence (AI) for critical care. Specifically, we compared the diversity among authors of publications leveraging open datasets, such as the commonly used MIMIC and eICU databases, with that among authors of publications relying exclusively on private datasets, unavailable to other research investigators (e.g., electronic health records from ICU patients accessible only to Mayo Clinic analysts). To measure the extent of author diversity, we characterized gender balance as well as the presence of researchers from low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) and minority-serving institutions (MSI) located in the United States (US). Our comparative analysis revealed a greater contribution of authors from LMICs and MSIs among researchers leveraging open critical care datasets (treatment group) than among those relying exclusively on private data resources (control group). The participation of women was similar between the two groups, albeit slightly larger in the former. Notably, although over 70% of all articles included at least one author inferred to be a woman, less than 25% had a woman as a first or last author. Importantly, we found that the proportion of authors from LMICs was substantially higher in the treatment than in the control group (10.1% vs. 6.2%, p<0.001), including as first and last authors. Moreover, we found that the proportion of US-based authors affiliated with a MSI was 1.5 times higher among articles in the treatment than in the control group, suggesting that open data resources attract a larger pool of participants from minority groups (8.6% vs. 5.6%, p<0.001). Thus, our study highlights the valuable contribution of the Open Data strategy to underrepresented groups, while also quantifying persisting gender gaps in academic and clinical research at the intersection of computer science and healthcare. In doing so, we hope our work points to the importance of extending open data practices in deliberate and systematic ways.
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Kovalchuk, V. P. "The method of obtaining soil's water-physical properties via their a granulometric composition." PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCE 12, no. 4 (2021): 115–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.31548/agr2021.04.115.

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The method of obtaining water-physical properties of soils (basic hydrophysical characteristics (BHC) and moisture conductivity function) is presented. These properties, or functions, allow us to describe the vertical movement of moisture in unsaturated soils as one of the components of the expenditure item of the water balance. They are widely used in the substantiation of water reclamation and in the modeling of moisture transfer in the soil. The method is based on laboratory studies of soil samples taken in the field on the granulometry composition. The results of laboratory test now in Ukraine are usually obtained by the method of Kaczynski with two components, the percentage of clay and sand. They are graphically, with the help of integral (cumulative) curves are transformed into data corresponding to the international classification - with three components: the content of sand, dust, clay. The latter fractional distribution is used by the world community of soil scientists. Therefore, using data on the content of sand, silt, clay, using a computer program with open access "Rosetta" USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) the water-physical properties in the form of water constants: the saturated soil moisture, the residual soil moisture, the saturated hydraulic conductivity, and the coefficients of the equations of the mathematical model of van Genuchten are calculated. The publication provides examples of calculation of water-physical properties of soils by the presented method of dark chestnut soils and ordinary chernozems. The advantages of the proposed method include the low complexity of experimental studies, the availability of analyzes and the presence of many experimental studies of the granulometry composition of soils, including in literary sources. As a development of the research direction, the author shows the application of the obtained dependence for modeling moisture transfer during water reclamation (irrigation in irrigation control systems.). Regarding the directions of future research, the publication recommends comparing the accuracy of obtaining water-physical properties of soils by different methods, as well as obtaining an important water constant - the field capacity (FC) as the lowest field moisture content.
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8

Ashad-Bishop, Kilan C., Jordan A. Baeker-Bispo, Zinzi D. Bailey, and Erin K. Kobetz. "Abstract C083: Exploring relationships between neighborhood social vulnerability and cancer screening in Miami-Dade County." Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 32, no. 1_Supplement (2023): C083. http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/1538-7755.disp22-c083.

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Abstract Purpose: Social and structural contributors to social vulnerability have been associated with cancer disparities across the continuum. This study aimed to explore relationships between indicators of neighborhood social vulnerability and participation in breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening in Miami-Dade County. Methods: Data were obtained at the census tract level from the United States Census Bureau American Community Survey (2014-2018), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Social Vulnerability Index (2018), and the CDC PLACES dataset (2018). This analysis was restricted to Miami-Dade census tracts for which PLACES data was available on mammography (n=135), cervical cancer screening (n=115), and colorectal screening (n=136) participation. Census tracts were stratified into tertiles based on screening participation, then social vulnerability indicators were assessed among the tertiles. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify characteristics responsible for most variability in breast, cervical and colorectal cancer screening. Results: Mammography participation was 51.76%, 58.80%, and 65.65% in the lower, middle, and upper tertiles, respectively. Among these tracts, per capita income (p<.001), earning an income below poverty (p<.001), educational attainment below earning an HS diploma (p<.001), the proportion of non-Hispanic White residents (p<.001), unemployed residents (p<.001), residents with a disability (p<.001), and people with no computer or limited access to the internet (p<.001) were significantly different between the tertiles. Cervical cancer screening participation was 79.60%, 84.36%, and 87.80% in the lower, middle, and upper tertiles, respectively. Among these tracts, per capita income (p<.001), earning an income below poverty (p<.001), educational attainment below earning an HS diploma (p<.001), and proportion of single-parent households with children under age 17 (p<.001), non-Hispanic White residents (p<.001), unemployed residents (p<.001), residents with a disability (p<.001), and people with no computer or limited access to the internet (p<.001) were significantly different between the screening tertiles. Colorectal cancer screening participation was 79.26%, 81.06%, and 85.26% in the lower, middle, and upper tertiles, respectively. Among these tracts, per capita income (p<.01), earning an income below poverty (p<.004), educational attainment below earning an HS diploma (p<.001), the proportion of residents with a disability (p<.001), and people with no computer or limited access to the internet (p<.001) were significantly different between the screening tertiles. Conclusions: These data suggest that social vulnerability is associated with cancer screening uptake, namely mammography, cervical cancer screening, and colorectal cancer screening. Further investigation of the social and structural factors contributing to disparities in cancer screening will help appropriately allocate resources and craft effective interventions to reduce the burden of cancer among those most vulnerable. Citation Format: Kilan C. Ashad-Bishop, Jordan A. Baeker-Bispo, Zinzi D. Bailey, Erin K. Kobetz. Exploring relationships between neighborhood social vulnerability and cancer screening in Miami-Dade County [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 15th AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2022 Sep 16-19; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2022;31(1 Suppl):Abstract nr C083.
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Fuller, Thomas F., and Leshinka Molel. "(Invited) Application of Open-Source, Python-Based Tools for the Simulation of Electrochemical Systems." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 25 (2023): 1630. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-01251630mtgabs.

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There is a rich history of mathematical modeling of electrochemical systems. These simulations are useful 1) to refine our understanding of systems that contain complex, coupled phenomena, 2) to design and control electrochemical devices, and 3) to help novices in developing confidence and intuition for the behavior of electrochemical systems. Regardless of the application, cyclic voltammetry, storage batteries, secondary current distributions, or corrosion to name a few, elucidating the relationship between current and potential is central to understanding how electrochemical systems behave. Here, we report on historical and future perspectives of simulating electrochemical systems with open-source, python-based tools. The presentation includes a tutorial of the formulation of problems based on underlying engineering and electrochemistry principles. Within R1 universities in the United States, excellent resources are available at little to no cost for the simulation of electrochemical systems. However, the price for these tools can be prohibitive for most engineers and scientists working in industry. Access to these tools is even worse in low- and lower-middle-income countries. Actively supporting open-source software promotes a more inclusive scientific and research community that is essential to confronting the challenges facing society. Python was chosen because it is open-source. FEniCSx, a popular open-source computing platform for solving partial differential equations,1-2 is applied to the solution of primary and secondary current distributions for two- and three-dimensional geometries. FEniCSx is used on both desktop computers as well as within high performance computing environments, such as Georgia Tech’s PACE. Simulations have long been known to increase interactions between instructors and teachers as well as to help students visualize content.3-4 Recently, tools developed in python have been applied to simple electrochemical systems. 5-6. Because of the low barrier to entry and access to numerous computational packages, such as numpy, matplotlib, and scipy, the Anaconda distribution of python is promoted. A series of dynamic simulations are designed to help students improve their understanding of electrochemical systems. These simulations feature animation and extensive use of widgets that allow students to adjust parameters and immediately observe the results. A. Logg, K. A. Mardal, G. N. Wells. Automated solution of differential equations by the finite element method, Lecture Notes in Computational Science and Engineering, 84 LNCSE (2012). A, Logg and G. N. Wells. DOLFIN: Automated finite element computing, ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, 37.2 (2010). T. de Jong, W. R. van Joolingen, Scientific Discovery Learning with Computer Simulations of Conceptual Domains, Review of Educational Research, 68, 179-201 (1998). R. E. West, C. R. Graham, Five Powerful Ways Technology Can Enhance Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Educational Technology, 45, 20-27 (2005). X. Wang, Z. Wang, Animated Electrochemistry Simulation Modules, J. Chem. Educ., 99, 752-758 (2022). T.F. Fuller, J.N. Harb, Using Python Simulations for Inquiry-Based Learning of Electrochemical Systems, ECS Meeting Abstracts, (2021). DOI 10.1149/MA2021-02511503mtgabs
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10

Freedman, Neal D., Liliana Brown, Lori M. Newman, et al. "COVID-19 SeroHub, an online repository of SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence studies in the United States." Scientific Data 9, no. 1 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01830-4.

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AbstractSeroprevalence studies provide useful information about the proportion of the population either vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2, previously infected with the virus, or both. Numerous studies have been conducted in the United States, but differ substantially by dates of enrollment, target population, geographic location, age distribution, and assays used. This can make it challenging to identify and synthesize available seroprevalence data by geographic region or to compare infection-induced versus combined infection- and vaccination-induced seroprevalence. To facilitate public access and understanding, the National Institutes of Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention developed the COVID-19 Seroprevalence Studies Hub (COVID-19 SeroHub, https://covid19serohub.nih.gov/), a data repository in which seroprevalence studies are systematically identified, extracted using a standard format, and summarized through an interactive interface. Within COVID-19 SeroHub, users can explore and download data from 178 studies as of September 1, 2022. Tools allow users to filter results and visualize trends over time, geography, population, age, and antigen target. Because COVID-19 remains an ongoing pandemic, we will continue to identify and include future studies.
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Books on the topic "Wikis (Computer science) – Access control – United States"

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United States. Department of Homeland Security. Office of Inspector General. Office of Information Technology. Improved administration can enhance science and technology laptop computer security. Dept. of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General, Office of Information Technology, 2006.

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United States. General Accounting Office, ed. FAA computer security: Actions needed to address critical weaknesses that jeopardize aviation operations : statement of Joel C. Willemssen, Director, Civil Agencies Information Systems, Accounting and Information Management Division, before the Committee on Science, House of Representatives. The Office, 2000.

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Forces, National Research Council (U S. ). Committee on Information Assurance for Network-Centric Naval. Information assurance for network-centric naval forces. National Academies Press, 2010.

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United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Subcommittee on the Constitution, Federalism, and Property Rights. Privacy in the digital age: Encryption and mandatory access : hearing before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Federalism, and Property Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, One Hundred Fifth Congress, second session ... March 17, 1998. U.S. G.P.O., 1998.

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United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. The need for privacy protections: Perspectives from the administration and the Federal Trade Commission : hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, second session, May 9, 2012. U.S. Government Printing Office, 2013.

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United States. Congress. House. Committee on Homeland Security. Subcommittee on Emerging Threats, Cybersecurity, and Science and Technology. Hacking the homeland: Investigating cybersecurity vulnerabilities at the Department of Homeland Security : hearing before the Subcommittee on Emerging Threats, Cybersecurity, and Science and Technology of the Committee on Homeland Security, House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, first session, June 20, 2007. U.S. G.P.O., 2009.

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Clinton), United States President (1993-2001 :. A legislative proposal: Message from the President of the United States transmitting a legislative proposal to protect the privacy, security and safety of the people of the United States through support for the widespread use of encryption, protection of the security of cryptographic keys, and facilitation of access to the plaintest of data for legitimate law enforcement purposes. U.S. G.P.O., 1999.

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1946-, Clinton Bill, United States. Congress. House. Committee on the Judiciary, and United States. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform, eds. A legislative proposal: Message from the President of the United States transmitting a legislative proposal to protect the privacy, security and safety of the people of the United States through support for the widespread use of encryption, protection of the security of cryptographic keys, and facilitation of access to the plaintest of data for legitimate law enforcement purposes. U.S. G.P.O., 1999.

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United States. President (1993-2001 : Clinton). A legislative proposal: Message from the President of the United States transmitting a legislative proposal to protect the privacy, security and safety of the people of the United States through support for the widespread use of encryption, protection of the security of cryptographic keys, and facilitation of access to the plaintext of data for legitimate law enforcement purposes. U.S. G.P.O., 1999.

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United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space. S. 1726, Promotion of Commerce Online in the Digital Era Act of 1996, or "Pro-CODE" Act: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Fourth Congress, second session, June 26, 1996. U.S. G.P.O., 1996.

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Book chapters on the topic "Wikis (Computer science) – Access control – United States"

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Clayton, John F. "Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web." In Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction. IGI Global, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-562-7.ch028.

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The development of the Internet has a relatively brief and well-documented history (Cerf, 2001; Griffiths, 2001; Leiner et al., 2000; Tyson, 2002). The initial concept was first mooted in the early 1960s. American computer specialists visualized the creation of a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone quickly could access data and programs from any node, or place, in the world. In the early 1970s, a research project initiated by the United States Department of Defense investigated techniques and technologies to interlink packet networks of various kinds. This was called the Internetting project, and the system of connected networks that emerged from the project was known as the Internet. The initial networks created were purpose-built (i.e., they were intended for and largely restricted to closed specialist communities of research scholars). However, other scholars, other government departments, and the commercial sector realized the system of protocols developed during this research (Transmission Control Protocol [TCP] and Internet Protocol [IP], collectively known as the TCP/IP Protocol Suite) had the potential to revolutionize data and program sharing in all parts of the community. A flurry of activity, beginning with the National Science Foundation (NSF) network NSFNET in 1986, over the last two decades of the 20th century created the Internet as we know it today. In essence, the Internet is a collection of computers joined together with cables and connectors following standard communication protocols.
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