Academic literature on the topic 'Wildlife conservation – Namibia'

Namibia is a semi-arid country and underground water sources have proven to be reliable water sources for drought-prone countries. Underground water has the ability to sustain conservation activities as long as water infrastructure is in place and maintained. Despite the different water requirements for the wildlife species, water remains an essential component of wildlife management in Namibia. Therefore, this study aims at understanding utilization of water points by various wildlife species in the Nyae Nyae conservancies, which is located in the north-eastern part of Namibia. This study used monitoring data from wildlife counts that are conducted by the Conservancy annually at water points coupled with key-informant interviews with local conservancy members and leaders as well as some stakeholders. The study shows that the Conservancy had a diverse number of wildlife species that were predominantly ungulates (70%). These species were detected at 29 water points distributed across the Conservancy. Most of the water points in the conservancy were artificial points with water drawn from the underground water sources, while a few of the water points were pans (17%). Water resources are very important resources for conservation, not only in terms of being used by wildlife but also in terms of being used to provide an indication of species diversity in the conservation.

AbstractThe Kwando Basin of north-eastern Namibia is firmly embedded in current national and international conservation agendas. It is a key part of the world's largest transboundary conservation area, the Kavango–Zambezi (KAZA) Transfrontier Conservation Area, and the home of seven community-based conservation areas (conservancies) and three smaller national parks (Mudumu, Nkasa Rupara and Bwabwata). While conservation agendas often start from the assumption that an authentic part of African nature is conserved as an assemblage of biota that has not been gravely impacted by subsistence agriculture, colonialism and global value chains, we show that environmental infrastructure along the Namibian side of the Kwando Valley has been shaped by the impact of administrative measures and the gradual decoupling of humans and wildlife in a vast wetland. The way towards today's conservation landscape was marked and marred by the enforced reordering of human–environment relations; clearing the riverine core wetlands of human habitation and concentrating communities in narrowly defined settlement zones; the suppression of specific, wetland-adapted subsistence practices; and the elimination of unwanted microbes with the help of insecticides. The interventions in the ecosystem and the construction of an environmental infrastructure have created a unique conservation landscape in the Namibian Zambezi region, which provides the foundation for its popularity and success.

The establishment of enclosed conservation areas are claimed to be the driving force for the long-term survival of wildlife populations. Whilst fencing provides an important tool in conservation, it simultaneously represents a controversial matter as it stops natural migration processes, which could ultimately lead to inbreeding, a decline in genetic diversity and local extinction if not managed correctly. Thus, wildlife residing in enclosed reserves requires effective conservation and management strategies, which are strongly reliant on robust population estimates. Here, we used camera traps combined with the relatively new class of spatially explicit capture-recaptured models (SECR) to produce the first reliable leopard population estimate for an enclosed reserve in Namibia. Leopard density was estimated at 14.51 leopards/100 km2, the highest recorded density in Namibia to date. A combination of high prey abundance, the absence of human persecution and a lack of top-down control are believed to be the main drivers of the recorded high leopard population. Our results add to the growing body of literature which suggests enclosed reserves have the potential to harbour high densities and highlight the importance of such reserves for the survival of threatened species in the future.

This paper brings together a wide range of concepts from climate change predictions, palaeoecology, wildlife ecology and sustainable livelihoods in order to prioritise adaptive management measures that are necessary for the conservation of the African megafauna. Climate change predictions emphasise the severe aridity that will surge into southern Africa later this century and must be contrasted with the relatively wetter conditions in eastern Africa. The evolution of African mammals and their adaptive responses to past episodes of climate change is explained by reference to range shifts and movements along Balinsky’s (1962) ‘drought corridor’ that extends from SW Africa northeastwards to Somalia and then westwards across the Saharan-Sahelian zone. The drought corridor today could potentially extend from Kenya southwestward through to Botswana/South Africa and Namibia, via connectivity corridors linking existing wildlife areas, forming the Kalahari-Rift Valley Transfrontier Conservation Landscape (KALARIVA TFCL). The most promising route along the drought corridor links the Chobe – Linyanti – Kwando river systems of Botswana/Namibia with Luangwa Valley in Northern Zambia, along the Zambezi River via Lake Kariba (Matsudonna and Mana Pools) in Zimbabwe. Malawi poses an absolute barrier to such connectivity and by the turn of this Century runs the risk of confining the area to the south almost entirely to the SW arid adapted fauna and that to the north to water dependent ungulates such as elephants, buffalo and zebra. The key movement corridors are identified in a bid to extend the spatial and temporal scale of conservation planning in order to adapt effectively to climate change. The importance of ‘co-existence’ between wildlife and people is emphasised together with the need for local communities to benefit from sharing the KALARIVA TFCL with African wildlife, via new models of conservation financing and management that reward rural African communities for being the true custodians of the African megafauna.

AbstractThe Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area Programme promotes landscape-level connectivity between clusters of wildlife management areas in five neighbouring countries. However, declining regional biodiversity can undermine efforts to maintain, expand and link wildlife populations. Narratives promoting species connectivity should thus be founded on studies of system and state changes in key resources. By integrating and augmenting multiple data sources throughout eight wildlife management areas, covering 1.7 million ha, we report changes during 1978–2015 in the occurrence and distribution of 31 mammal species throughout a landscape linking the Greater Kafue System to adjacent wildlife management areas in Namibia and Botswana. Results indicate species diversity is largely unchanged in Kafue National Park and Mulobezi and Sichifulo Game Management Areas. However, 100% of large carnivore and 64% of prey diversity have been lost in the Simalaha areas, and there is no evidence of migrational behaviour or species recolonization from adjacent wildlife areas. Although temporal sampling scales influence the definition of species occupancy and distribution, and data cannot elucidate population size or trends, our findings indicate an emerging connectivity bottleneck within Simalaha. Evidence suggests that at current disturbance levels the Greater Kafue System, Zambia's majority component in the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, is becoming increasingly isolated at the trophic scale of large mammals. Further investigations of the site-specific, interacting drivers influencing wildlife distribution and occurrence are required to inform appropriate conservation interventions for wildlife recovery in key areas identified to promote transboundary connectivity in the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area.

In response to significant elephant population declines in the 1970s and 1980s because of poaching for ivory, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) banned the international trade in Asian and African elephant species by listing them on Appendix I in 1973 and 1989, respectively. Many southern African countries disagreed with the African elephant trade ban and have continued to argue against it since the mid-1980s. They maintain that their governments practise sound wildlife management policies and actions and, as a consequence, their national elephant populations have reached unsustainable size. They argue that they should not be penalized because other countries cannot manage their wildlife. Further, they say they need the proceeds from ivory and other by-product sales to finance conservation efforts. In 1997, the CITES Conference of Parties voted to allow Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe to auction off 50 tonnes of government ivory stockpiles to Japanese traders on a one-off experimental basis, which took place in 1999. Ivory trade opponents allege that this sale stimulated ivory demand, resulting in a surge of elephant poaching. Nevertheless, CITES voted again in 2002 to allow Botswana, Namibia and South Africa to auction off another 60 tonnes of ivory after May 2004. Trade opponents have launched an active campaign to prevent the sales, warning that they could provoke a renewed elephant holocaust. This paper reviews available quantitative evidence on ivory trade and elephant killing to evaluate the arguments of the ivory trade proponents and opponents. The evidence supports the view that the trade bans resulted generally in lower levels of ivory market scale and elephant poaching than prevailed prior to 1990. There is little evidence to support claims that the 1999 southern African ivory auctions stimulated ivory demand or elephant poaching. Levels of elephant poaching and illegal ivory trading in a country are more likely to be related to wildlife management practices, law enforcement and corruption than to choice of CITES appendix listings and consequent extent of trade restrictions. Elephant conservation and public welfare can be better served by legal ivory trade than by a trade ban, but until demand for ivory can be restrained and various monitoring and regulation measures are put into place it is premature for CITES to permit ivory sales.

SUMMARYHuman-wildlife conflict is detrimental to the conservation of threatened carnivores and the livelihoods of rural communities. This paper compares perceived levels of human-carnivore conflict experienced on five Namibian communal conservancies and four resettled farming areas. Factors explored include how reported depredation was affected by livestock husbandry practices, the perceived annual cost of depredation and the reported problem predator species. Of the 147 respondents interviewed, perceived depredation was greater than in previous studies; high perceived depredation was associated with greater rates of predator removal, increased ranking of predators as problems and increased predator sighting frequency. Small stock species were the most commonly depredated livestock. The most frequently perceived predators were: jackals on goats and sheep, wild cats on chickens, leopards on horses and spotted hyenas on cattle. The financial cost of this predation was US$508898, mostly attributable to cattle depredation, and agricultural training schemes recommending good livestock management may help reduce this cost. A move from small to large stock farming could be promoted in areas with an abundance of small- to medium-sized carnivores and a lack of large carnivores. Further incentives, such as meat provision and income from consumptive and non-consumptive tourism could ensure benefits outweigh costs of wildlife coexistence.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study summarizes data for the consumptive wildlife industry in Namibia, both in terms of resource availability and current utilization and monetary value. Based on these data a spreadsheet-based cash-flow model is developed to simulate scenarios and to explore what constitutes the critical parameter. Based on this data synthesis and modelling, recommendations are made and conclusions drawn. Chapter one gives an overview of Namibia's economy, with special reference to the livestock and wildlife industry. The fact that the commercial livestock herd has been shrinking over the years is pointed out, as well as the stable output achieved through better management practices. The literature research has shown that wildlife ranching could be a viable alternative to livestock farming as practised in southern Africa, especially in the more arid areas with higher rainfall variability. Chapter two outlines the resource availability, based on the distribution and densities of the more common species. The occurrence of the rarer species is touched on. The point is made that it is very difficult to accurately count wildlife over large areas and that, as elsewhere, Namibia's wildlife at a regional scale is underestimated. Chapter three documents the consumptive use of wildlife. Trophy hunting, the most important segment in terms of national income, is discussed together with the live sale of game, live export of game, venison production and night culling. A comparison is made between the economic outputs of the wildlife industry versus that of the commercial cattle industry. Chapter four covers financial modelling and the economics of the wildlife industry in Namibia. A spread-sheet based deterministic model is developed to explore the cash-flow implications of various game ranching options, such as using different species mixes, owning land of different carrying capacities and offering different services. Chapter five addresses policy and legislative issues in relation to the wildlife industry. Topics such as property rights and exclusive utilization rights, industry representation and the forming of smart partnerships with primary resource users are covered. Broad recommendations are made to the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Chapter six is used for a concluding synthesis of the previous four chapters.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie som die konsumptiewe wildlewe industrie in Namibie op in terme van van beide beskikbaarheid, huidige verbruik en monetere waarde van hierdie hulpbron. Gebaseer op hierdie data is 'n kontantvloei model opgestel om vooruitskouings te simuleer, met betrekking op aanbevelings en gevolgtrekkings. Hoofstuk een gee 'n oorsig van die Namibiese ekonomie met spesiale verwysing na die vee- en wildboerdery. Daar word uitgewys dat die gesamentlike kommersiele veekudde oor die afgelope aantal jare kleiner geword het, terwyl die opbrengs stabiel gebly het deurdat better bestuurspraktyke toegepas is. Die literatuurstudie het gewys dat in suider-Afrika, wildlewe-boerdery 'n lewensvatbare alternatief kan wees vir veeboerdery, veral in die droër streke wat 'n hoër reenval speling toon. Gebaseer op die verspreiding en digtheid van die meer algemene wild, gee hoofstuk drie 'n oorsig van die beskikbaarheid van hierdie hulpbronne. Trofeejag, wat die belangrikste inkomstesektor is, word bespreek, sowel as die lewende verkoop, uitvoer en nagoes (skiet van diere gedurende die nag vir vleisproduksie) van wild, asook die wildvleis produksie. Met betrekking tot die ekonomiese uitsette, word 'n vergelyking gemaak tussen die wildlewe en kommersiele veeboerdery industrie. Hoofstuk vier dek die finansiele modelering en ekonomiese aspekte van die wildlewe industrie in Namibie. 'n Rekenaar "spreadsheet" -gebaseerde, deterministiese model is ontwikkel om die kontantvloei van verskeie opsies van wildlewe boerdery te verken. Voorbeelde sluit in die gebruik van verskillende spesie samestellings, die besit van grond met verskillende drakrag vermoëns, asook die aanbiedinge van verskeie dienste. Hoofstuk vyf bespreek die beleid en wetgewing met betrekking tot die wildlewe industrie. Onderwerpe soos eiendomsreg en eksklusiewe benuttingsregte, industrie verteenwoordiging en die stigting van "smart" vennootskappe met primere hulpbron verbruikers, word aangespreek. Aanbevelings word aan die Ministerie van Omgewing en Toerisme gemaak. Hoofstuk ses behels 'n sintese van die voorafgaande vier hoofstukke.

This qualitative multiple case study explored human-elephant conflict-coexistence relationships and issues of conservation in Namibia (Damaraland) and Sri Lanka (Wasgamuwa) from a posthumanist, multispecies perspective. Within each region, conflict between humans and elephants is considered high, elephants are considered endangered and are of high conservation priority, the human population has grown significantly, and community-based organizations are implementing holistic approaches to increase positive relations between humans and elephants. This study was guided by research questions that explored the current landscape of the human-elephant-conservation nexus within each region, the shared histories between humans and elephants over time, and the value in utilizing more-than-human theoretical and methodological frameworks to enhance human-elephant relationships and support conservation efforts. Data collection methods included participant observation, naturalistic observation, interviews, visual data, and documents. Data was triangulated and analyzed within each case, as well as across cases. Major themes were identified within each case that describe unique contexts, cultures, and shared histories. These findings were then analyzed comparatively. Emergent themes across cases identified ways that a more-than-human framework may be useful in fostering coexistence between humans and elephants and supporting conservation efforts. This study contributes to the evolving scholarship on multispecies approaches to inquiry and methodology from the position of conflict resolution scholar, supports a more inclusive framework for analyzing human-wildlife conflicts, discusses theoretical and methodological implications in multispecies research, and provides recommendations for future research.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research focuses on the black rhinoceros and ecotourism in three conservation areas in the Kunene region of Namibia. The reciprocal impact between black rhino and community-based ecotourism is analysed. The research is located in two communal conservancies, #Khoadi-//Hôas and Torra, and in a photographic tourism concession, the Palmwag Concession Area. The research aims to explore and describe the reciprocal impact of community-based ecotourism efforts and black rhino spatial movement patterns in three conservation areas in north-west Namibia. An in-depth literature review was undertaken on the reciprocal impact between rhino-tracking tourism and conservation. A comparison was also made between the effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos and the perception of tourists about tracking black rhinos. The value of black rhinos to community-based ecotourism was also determined. Quantitative research methodology was used for this study. Explorations of objectives were conducted through direct field observation with the aid of radio-telemetry tracking and aerial surveying for data gathering. The researcher employed SRT (Save the Rhino Trust) trackers in the study areas to assist with the tracking. The sample consisted of 24 transmitter-fitted black rhino in the three conservation areas. Rhino not fitted with transmitters have been included in the sample for more accurate results. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed at four tourist lodges in the study area. The hypothesis that sustainable ecotourism does not influence black rhino spatial behaviour was rejected. Rhinos in the study were easily disturbed and did not readily return to undisturbed behaviour. Their major response to disturbance was to run away. The disturbance was influenced by their initial activity when found. The highest disturbance occurred early in observations. Rhinos illustrated similar causes of disturbance throughout the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the area with the most severe reactions to disturbance. This was supported by home range data and ecological constraints. Analysis of tourist responses regarding rhino tracking indicated a high demand for and level of satisfaction. This was the single determining factor for tourists to return to the Kunene region to do rhino tracking again. Tourists were willing to pay close to market price to track black rhino. It is recommended that tracking of black rhino should be avoided in the Springbok River and Aub/Barab areas. Tracking protocols should stipulate that tracking should only be conducted early in the morning; that rhinos may only be approached from downwind; that observation time may not exceed 15 minutes; that groups must be kept small; and that the approach distance may not be less than 100 metres.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van die navorsing is op swart renosters en ekotoerisme in drie bewaringsgebiede in die Kunene streek van Namibia. Die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen swart renosters en gemeenskaps-gebaseerde ekotoerisme is nagevors. Die navorsing het plaasgevind in twee kommunale bewaringsgebiede, #Khoadi-//Hôas en Torra asook ‘n konsessie vir fotografie in die Palmwag Konsessie Gebied. Die doel van die navorsing was om die wedersydse wisselwerking van gemeenskapsgebaseerde ekotoerisme en swart renosters se geografiese bewegingspatrone in drie bewaringsareas in noordwes Namibië te ondersoek en te omskryf. ‘n Deeglike literatuurstudie is gedoen ten opsigte van die wedersydse wisselwerking tussen toerisme met die doel om renosters waar te neem deur spoorsny en bewaring van die spesies. Die uitwerking van versteuring deur mense op die geografiese bewegingspatrone van swart renosters is vergelyk met die persepsie van toeriste ten opsigte van spoorsny van swart renosters. Die waarde van swart renosters ten opsigte van ekotoerisme is ook bepaal. Kwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie is gebruik in die studie. Die doelstelling van die navorsing is uitgevoer deur direkte veld waarnemings met behulp van radio-telemetriese opsporing en data insameling met behulp van lugsensusse. Die navorser het spoorsnyers van SRT (Save the Rhino Trust), wat in die studiegebied werk, in diens geneem om van hulp te wees met die spoorsny van renosters. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 24 swart renosters toegerus met seintoestelle in drie bewaringsgebiede. Renosters wat nie seintoestelle gehad het nie, is ook in die steekproef ingesluit ten einde beter dekking te verkry. Vierhonderd vraelyste is by vier toeristeoorde in die studiegebied versprei. Die hipotese dat volhoubare ekotoerisme nie ‘n invloed uitoefen op die geografiese gedrag van swart renosters nie, is verwerp. Renosters in die studie-gebied is maklik versteur en het nie geredelik teruggekeer tot onversteurde gedrag nie. Hulle reaksie op versteuring was gekenmerk deur weg te hardloop. Die mate van versteuring is bepaal deur die renosters se aanvanklike aktiwiteit by opsporing. Die meeste versteuring het gedurende vroeë waarneming plaasgevind. Dieselfde oorsake van versteuring is in al drie gebiede gevind. Die Springbokrivier was die gebied waar die sterkste reaksies ten opsigte van versteuring bespeur is. Dit word ondersteun deur die grootte van die loopgebiede van die renosters en ekologiese beperkings van die gebied. Data-analise van toeriste-vraelyste het aangetoon dat daar ‘n groot aanvraag en belangstelling is in die spoorsny van renosters. Die grootste bepalende faktor vir toeriste om na die Kunene streek terug te keer, is om renosters te sien deur middel van spoorsny. Toeriste is gewillig om die heersende markprys vir spoorsny van renosters te betaal. Navorsingsaanbevelings sluit in dat spoorsny van swart renosters in die Springbokrivier en Aub/Barab gebiede vermy word. Spoorsny-protokol moet stipuleer dat dit net in die vroeë oggend gedoen word, dat renosters slegs van onderkant die wind genader word, waarnemingstyd mag nie 15 minute oorskry nie, groepe moet klein wees en die afstand vanaf die diere mag nie nader as 100 meter wees nie.

This mini-dissertation is a comparison, by repeat survey, of farmer-related threats to cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) survival on specific commercial farms in central Namibia. The research was conducted, to investigate if there had been changes in these threats to cheetah survival over a ten-year period (June 1991 to October 2001). A sub-sample of 31 farmers who were originally interviewed by the Cheetah Conservation Fund in June 1991, were re-interviewed between July and October 2001. These farmers were exposed to the Cheetah Conservation Fund awareness-raising programme. The results of this survey were compared to the results of the original survey of these farmers. This study showed that changes in farmer-related threats to cheetah survival have taken place. These include changes in land use, the attitude and behaviour of farmers towards cheetah, and cattle management practices. The land use changes include an increase in game farming, as a major source of income, by 19% of the farmers, since 1991. This increase in game farming was associated with an increase in game proof fencing and the introduction of alien antelope species into game fenced areas. The attitude of farmers towards the presence of cheetah on their farms was found to have changed significantly (p = 0.024), with 13% more farmers than before 1991 favouring cheetah presence on their farms. The behaviour of farmers towards cheetah has also changed in favour of cheetah survival. During the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, 23% of the farmers removed no cheetah, compared to 10% for the ten-year period before 1991. Thirteen percent of the farmers were found to remove cheetah by trophy hunting only, as opposed to none prior to 1991. During the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, the number of cheetah removed by the same farmers had declined by 243 (55%) cheetah when compared to the previous ten-year period. Game farmers were found to remove on average 3.75 times more cheetah than livestock farmers. Five game farmers were responsible for removing 92 cheetah, representing 47% of the total number of cheetahs removed. The majority (88%) of cattle farmers experienced calf losses to cheetah predation. In contrast to this, only 44% of smallstock farmers experienced losses to cheetah predation. The mean loss of livestock to predation by cheetah was found to be low, less than one animal per year for both calves and smallstock. The majority (73%) of cattle farmers implement only one livestock management strategy to prevent predation on calves by cheetah. The majority (88%) of smallstock farmers implemented more than one strategy to prevent predation. Changes in management practices to protect calves from cheetah predation since 1991 included a 14% decline in farmers using a technique known as 'calving camps' and an increase of 42% in the number of farmers monitoring their cows during the calving season. In conclusion, during the ten-year period from 1991 to 2001, both positive and negative changes in farmer-related threats to cheetah survival were recorded amongst the farmers interviewed. The positive changes include changes in the attitude and behaviour of farmers in favour of cheetah survival. However, this progress was tempered by change in land use from livestock to game farming, since game farmers pose a greater threat to cheetah survival than livestock farmers.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

The design, implementation, management and the evaluation of sound conservation practices, is often dependent on the availability of reliable estimates of animal abundance. Large carnivores often pose particular problems in this regard, due to their low densities and wide-ranging behaviour, so the true abundance of such species are seldom able to be reported in literature . As a result, the use of indices of abundance, mostly for relative abundance, has been investigated. However, before these indices can be reliably utilized for conservation purposes , there is a pressing need to calibrate them. As of yet, calibration studies have primarily been performed on demarcated conservation areas, where individuals could be individually identified. Not all these calibrations studies reported indices to be a function of true density. Nevertheless , spoor frequency has been reported to be a function of true density for carnivores in certain Parks in Namibia . Precisely , cheetah spoor density was reported to correlate with visuals in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. The majority of these studies elucidate a species spatial organization, animal behaviour, as the paramount factor determining the relationship between densities estimated via different censusing methods. Thus, the efficiency of spoor frequency to estimate and monitor relative abundance for wild cheetahs is yet to be empirically tested . Despite the lack of a true density estimate for the free-ranging cheetahs in the study area, evaluated spoor tracking as a possible index to monitor relative cheetah abundance using radiotelemetry densities estimates as representative of true abundance for the area, for the 1995 to 2000 period. The study is considered to be opportunistic , and a pillar for future research, as transects where spoor tracking was conducted were layout primarily for ungulates strip counts. Least-linear regression and Spearman's correlation were used to evaluate the relationship between density estimates derived by the two methods. Percentages of change on annual densities were also regressed as a mean to test spoor frequency sensitivity to density changes. The calibration of spoor frequency with estimates of density produced using radio-telemetry, without the ascription of imprints to individual animals, was poor (rs=17.4, y=0.36+0.20). The sensitivity analysis also showed spoor tracking poor reliability to monitor cheetah population. This can be attributed, in order of importance, to the discrepancies on the spatial extent sampled by the two methods, the species large home ranges, substrate quality , habitat preferences, the availability of farm road networks and the transect design, i.e., cyclic. However, the paramount factor limiting the study conclusions was the lack of a more local density estimate at a farm level. Therefore, the use of spoor frequency to estimate wild cheetah relative abundance requires further research, particularly using a different sampling design, longer straight transects and the acquisition of local densities estimates.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The research problem of this mini-dissertation involves the conflicts between human and wildlife populations and the trialing of ‘compensation’ payouts that are emerging as a critical test within the conservancy. Crop raiders such as elephants, buffaloes, hippopotamus, bush pigs and small rodents, diminish farmers’ resource bases and cash crops, while carnivores are responsible for livestock losses. The aim of the research is to assess the level of community understanding of the compensation scheme and the impact of human wildlife interaction within the conservancy. This mini-dissertation investigated the level of community understanding about the Human Animal Conservancy Self-Insurance Scheme (HACSIS), and the impact of human-wildlife conflicts within the Kwandu Conservancy. Some of the research data were obtained from the conservancy game guards’ event book system, and the actual field research data were collected from the 1st August to 20th August 2006. The researcher conducted a total of 35 interviews, whereby 32 involved face-to-face interviews with single individuals, and 3 separate focus group discussions that consisted of four, five and two conservancy members. The interviews averaged 30 minutes in length. Each interview was preceded by a careful explanation of the purposes of the work, stressing that the intent was to evaluate their understanding and perceptions on HACSIS, the impact of human-wildlife conflicts and to explore better management strategies. The researcher has taken into account that the communities might exaggerate the wildlife problem based on his previous experience with the adjacent conservancy, in the hopes of gaining more compensation – they also use the researcher as a way to vent their frustration at the problem. On the assumption that there may be an element of exaggeration verification of these was obtained from the Event Book System (a manual book used by the Community Game Guards for recording both crops and livestock incidents on daily basis). This mini-dissertation reveals that 74.3 % (n = 26) of respondents are aware of the existence of the HACSIS program and its role, while 17.1 % of respondents had no idea about the scheme’s presence and its involvement to minimize the impact felt by communities when they lose livestock to predators. The percentage of respondents who claimed that they had heard of the scheme’s existence but had no knowledge of its role was 8.6 %. In addition, most respondents (n = 15) claimed that the conservancy committee did not explain to them why their claim forms were rejected. In contrast, some respondents (n = 6) did received feedback on rejected claim forms. HACSIS was not formed to compensate livestock losses based on market value, nor was it intended as a ‘compensation’ scheme. Its aim was to test a conservancy-run process – local verification of claims and monitoring by conservancy committee and traditional authority. In addition, the authorization of payments for a type of ‘self-insurance’ is drawn from conservancy income to partially offset the losses of conservancy members versus the overall gains that wildlife brings to the conservancy (direct conservancy income and local jobs through tourism, trophy hunting, own use game harvesting). Conservancy committees and the support NGO, IRDNC, agreed on the amount to be refunded for animal losses before the scheme was started, initially using donor funding in the trial phases. The amount was deliberately kept low as it was acknowledged from the start that conservancies themselves would take over the repayments from their own income. Once the conservancy was used to its own income to finance the scheme, conservancy members could vote to increase amounts paid for predator losses. The crucial aspect, according to IRDNC, was that the process itself be tested and that the scheme be run by the conservancy, with Ministry of Environment and Tourism and IRDNC merely monitoring and providing assistance as needed. Compensation is based on this pre-determined amount that is less than the livestock value. However, the research reveals that respondents (n = 19) were dissatisfied with the amount paid (N$ 800-00 per ox killed), because they claim that the amount paid to relieve the immediate impact from wildlife is too little to sustain the affected member. In contrast, some respondents (n = 8) were satisfied with the amount paid as compensation. Despite criticisms about the amount paid for livestock losses, none of the respondents (n = 22) who were familiar with the scheme wanted it to be abolished. The respondents emphasized the need for the conservancy committee to review the amount paid as compensation, especially for cattle. They suggested an increase from the current N$ 800-00 to N$ 1000-00 per ox loss. The research reveals that community livestock management practices have not changed to deliberately benefit from the compensation. In fact community management strategies have improved because of the condition set by the review committee dealing with the compensation scheme. Wildlife incidents have increased because animals are habituated to techniques used by communities to deter them and this has contributed to high livestock incidents. For human-wildlife conflicts, the research acknowledges that the conflict exists. Between 2003-2005, the Kwandu Conservancy reported 1508 incidents of damage to crops by wildlife. Species that were responsible included elephants with 30.2 % damage, bush pigs (29.8 %), hippopotamus (12.7%), antelopes (12.7 %), porcupine (7.5 %), and baboons/monkeys (7.2 %). Most of the crops destroyed by crop raiders, as suggested by the respondents, were maize (30 %), sorghum (26 %), millet (17 %), groundnuts (14 %), pumpkins (8 %) and beans (5%). During the same period of crop losses, the conservancy reported 98 livestock incidents. Animals responsible for livestock incidents were crocodile with 32 incidents (32.7 %), then hyena (23 incidents, 23.5 %), leopard (22 incidents, 22.4 %) and lion (21 incidents, 21.4%). The role of community game guards was found to be extensive. From a total 35 responses, 74.3 % (n = 26) of members stated that community game guards effectively record incidents, chased problem-causing animals from the community crop fields by shouting or shooting in the air, and assessed or verified killed livestock for compensation purposes. In addition, community game guards conduct crop assessment for record-keeping purposes. The scheme for crop compensation is to be introduced in 2007. Currently there is no proper formula to use in assessing the value of crops and the method to use to compensate the affected members. Other methods used by communities to deter wildlife include sleeping in the field to guard crops, cracking a whip, construction of human statues, hanging tins on the fence, chilli coils, watchtowers and digging trenches. Respondents had different views on the best management practices for problem-causing animals. The response was generally based on the degree of threat that the animal posed. Most (43.8 %, n = 14) preferred the monitoring of problem-causing animals that are sighted in an area as a best practice, while 40.6 % (n = 13) of respondents preferred the animal to be captured and relocated to parks. Only 25.6 % (n = 5) of respondents preferred that the animal be destroyed. The management practices preferred by respondents when an animal kills a person are different from when an animal is simply sighted in the area. If an animal kills a person, only 12.5 % (n = 4) of respondents preferred that the animal be captured and relocated to parks, while 87.5 % (n = 28) of respondents preferred the problem-causing animal to be destroyed. None of the respondents suggested monitoring as the best management option for this degree of threat. In conclusion, the research revealed that Human Animal Conservancy Self Insurance Scheme does not treat the cause of the problem but the symptom. This approach does not decrease the level of the problem given that the cause of the problem is not addressed. Therefore, the researcher stressed the need to fully explore and implement the recent piloted lion, crocodile fencing, and elephant proof fencing and elephants chilli coil to address and reduce the problem within Kwandu Conservancy. In addition, the research revealed that the scheme has very lengthy delays before compensation is paid and the review panel does not arrange meetings on the stipulated dates. This causes a back-log in the number of claims that need to be reviewed and approved. On Human Wildlife Conflict the research findings recommend the need to strengthen and improve existing problem-causing animal management strategies that are in place. Innovative strategies include reducing the number of stray livestock at night and developing static fences. Communities should be advised, as is being done by IRDNC, to herd their livestock during the day and to build strong kraals. This is the most effective and cheapest way to prevent livestock from being taken by predators at night. Further more the research revealed that the combination and rotation of the methods yield high success rather than deploying a single method over a long period, for the prevention of crop losses methods include guarding the crop field, cracking a whip, shooting in the air, watchtowers, human statues and beating drums.
Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.