Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Wildlife crimes'

This research is presented in three sections. Section 1 presents the research report in an academic paper format. Section 2 provides a comprehensive literature review and Section 3 describes the research methodology and methods employed during the research. The tourism industry is the fastest growing sector within the South African Economy, with over 2.6 million foreign tourists visiting South Africa each year. Wildlife, landscapes and scenery are cited as the primary attractions for visiting the country, with over 45 percent of tourists visiting at least one wildlife or nature reserve during their stay in South Africa (Kerley et al., 2011:2). Sixty percent of those tourists travelled for leisure purposes, with 643,883 of the tourists utilising safari lodge accommodation during their visit (Ruggles-Brise, 2013). The Eastern Cape achieved 3.1 percent; of those tourist arrivals, with a bed-night contribution of 734,339, compared to the 16.8 percent (1.9million) and 10.5 percent (1.07million) for Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces respectively (Ruggles-Brise, 2013). The Eastern Cape lodges represent less than half the bed-nights achieved by Mpumalanga and Limpopo lodges. Due to the number of possible bed-nights available to lodges in the Eastern Cape, it is increasingly important for individual lodges to provide a unique experience, in order to be competitive in attracting guests (Saayman, 2013:81). This was used form part of the foundation to this research in determining the marketability of three lodges in the Eastern Cape, which was derived from the attractiveness of the lodges, determined by guests visiting the lodges. This research follows on from four previous surveys commissioned by INDALO, the Eastern Cape Private Nature Reserve Association in 2004 Sims-Castley et al. 2004), 2006 (Langholz et al., 2006), 2008 (Snowball et al., 2008) and 2011 (Kerley et al., 2011). Part of the research was to identify the main attractions of the reserves. These previous surveys provided a foundation for this research to follow on investigating guest motivations for visiting the three sample lodges and to determine visitor perception of poaching and whether it would impact their motivations for visiting the reserve. In order to address the goals of the research qualitative data was gathered during survey interviews conducted at the three sampled reserves. Seventy five (75) guests were interviewed, equally over the three reserves. Quantitative data was also gathered during the interview surveys, utilising Likert scale questions, prompting guests to choose their top attractions, from which basic descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data being able to determine possible trends amongst respondents and lodges. Results verified guest motivations from the previous surveys, confirming that game viewing, especially the “Big 5” remained the most important attraction for visitors to the reserves while the availability of natural scenery and landscape, high end accommodation and service, the proximity to the garden route and being located in a malaria free area were also see as attractive attributes of the lodges as per the previous surveys. Where the gap in the research was indicated based on guests perception of poaching and whether it would impact their motivations for visit these lodges, impacting that lodges marketability (attractiveness). Results indicated that if they were unable to view the iconic ‘Big Five’ at the reserve due to the extent of poaching. Respondents indicated that the impact would likely and very likely impact their decision to choose the reserves over another reserve that could. Indicating the potential impact that poaching would have on lodges if they were to lose their iconic species which would spell the loss in attractiveness and therefore marketability.

This research considers the enforcement of wildlife legislation in the UK. It examines the extent of wildlife crime, the role of Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in helping to shape the public policy and police response to wildlife crime and the current position of UK wildlife legislation. A variety of animal and wildlife protection legislation is on the statute books but crimes such as egg collecting, bird of prey persecution, the illegal trade in wildlife and the illegal killing and trapping of animals such as badgers for sport continue.

This is an original thematic research thesis that investigated the causes that lead to the current unprecedented escalation of wildlife crime in Africa that threatens to destroy our global environment by decimating and driving our wildlife which is a global heritage to extinction. The research study which was conducted both in Kenya and in the United Kingdom, has developed unique and distinguishable proposals, methods and recommendations, referred to as the 3Cs solutions, which can be effectively utilized in combating and curbing wildlife crime at a global scale. Nature has provided very delicate and sophisticated ecological systems where all plants and animals have very important roles that they play which keeps this planet Earth’s environment habitable. The realization that the future of this World and the entire human race is greatly linked to these global ecological systems and their biodiversity balance has caused a new global awareness and eagerness to view these eco-systems and the entire global environment as one and to halt destruction of any of these eco-systems taking place anywhere on planet Earth. Wildlife crime is currently the greatest threat to the ecological system and its bio-diversity balance in Africa and by extension to the global environment, as it is destroying an ecological and bio-diversity system of a globally important biome and green belt area south of the Sahara. East, Central and Southern Africa have been identified as the largest source markets that supply illegal wildlife trophies to the consumer markets in the Far East Asia, Western Europe the Middle East and the USA. Yet some of these supply source countries have functioning legal systems that have failed to curb this crime. Kenya is one such country. Kenya was selected for this study because it is the region’s major logistics and trading hub for illegal wildlife crime trophies. Kenya has a functioning Criminal Justice System mandated to combat wildlife crime yet it has badly failed to do so. The three departments within that Criminal Justice System which are mandate to protect wildlife by enforcing wildlife crime laws in Kenya are Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) warders for policing, the Prosecution and the Judiciary. The main purpose of this study was therefore to investigate and understand why a functioning legal system is unable to combat wildlife crime by determining the challenges it faces in curbing this vice. The study focused on wildlife crime committed for commercial export purposes and identified 5 prime species that are targeted for their trophies for illegal export which are the elephant, rhino, lion, leopard and cheetah herein after referred to in this study as the ‘Charismatic Five. The study employed Empirical research methods to conduct the research and to answer the research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research techniques were utilized. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design in order to assist the researcher achieve the objective of the study. Five national parks were selected for the study being the parks where the charismatic 5 wildlife species are abundantly found and therefore the targeted parks by poachers. The population of the study were therefore Kenya Wildlife Service Wardens in the selected national parks, Magistrates and Prosecutors serving in the courts where these parks are located. A peer review of this study’s research tool was first done followed by pilot study carried out at the Nairobi National Park in Kenya, which tested and found the research tool to be suitable, reliable and valid to achieve the overall research objectives. The main survey was conducted in Kenya and took over 4 months for data collection to be completed. Data analysis was done in the United Kingdom. Inferential statistics were used in drawing conclusions. Out of the 156 questionnaires distributed, 152 were completed and returned, representing a 97% response rate due to massive interest shown on the topic by the respondents. The study identified 20 causes and challenges being experienced within the criminal justice system and made recommendations for each challenge that offers the best solution to resolving that challenge. This research study has developed and promulgates some conclusive proposals as its original contributions to knowledge. These contributions are supported by analytical and empirical evidence from this research study and are as follows: Firstly, it challenges the Apocryphal Cause that corruption is the cause of the escalation of wildlife crime. Based on the evidence collected through this research, it can now be categorically and authentically proved that the sudden upward surge of demand in wildlife trophies in the consumers markets of the Far East Countries is the leading cause of escalation of wildlife crime in the source markets like Kenya. Secondly, this study has developed a new concept called ‘The 3Cs’ concept, through which it proposes and offers new methods for combating wildlife crime. The concept is conceptualized and propounded in a pack consisting of The Concept; The 3Cs Test; The 3C’s Model; and, the 3 Cs Application Tool Kit. Overall, it is sincerely hoped that the finding of this research will dominate discussions in the global arena dealing with wildlife crime and contribute tremendously as a solution to this global cause.

The thesis aims to explore the effectiveness of international cooperation to combat transnational organized wildlife crime by analysing some lessons learned from two specific initiatives in Asia: the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) and the Border Liaison Office (BLO) Mechanism. However, both exploring and measuring effectiveness are part of a difficult puzzle. To fit all the pieces of the puzzle together, the research explores the international framework within which the illegal wildlife trade is combated as well as the role of the various actors involved. The illegal wildlife trade is then examined as a transnational organized crime. This is followed by an analysis of the emergence of new structures or initiatives developed to facilitate cooperation and coordination to combat the illegal wildlife trade in Asia, and Southeast Asia in particular. The research provides a process evaluation of the initiatives on the illegal wildlife trade and cross-border cooperation and is grounded on findings which are constructed around themes identified based on available literature and perceptions of participants involved in the initiatives. The thesis provides an in-depth analysis of two existing efforts in Asia and attempts to measure their effectiveness as organisations, though it is not possible to undertake an outcome evaluation. It also identifies ways to strengthen both the effectiveness of efforts and the way one could analyse or measure their effectiveness. This includes exploring the challenges of cooperation and the various actors involved; considerations on wildlife crime as a serious transnational crime and combating it through platforms for cooperation, and; exploring and measuring the effectiveness of the different initiatives in a process evaluation. Given the pervasive role of corruption, some reflections on this important matter are included. The thesis concludes with some thoughts for future research and engagement for the broader research community as well as practitioners or organizations involved in similar efforts to combat transnational organized wildlife crime.

This thesis analyses the use of remote sensing technologies in efforts that seek to combat wildlife crime in East and Southern Africa. Companies and organisations working on the development of remote sensing technology used for anti-poaching efforts, in the study region, are identified through the creation of a database. The social impacts and risks involved in using these technologies are then outlined by analysing the responses to a research survey from those in the conservation community working with wildlife crime. The species focus is on rhino and elephant poaching, thus, the thesis begins with a background on the legislation surrounding both the hunting and trade of these species. Stockpiling of rhino horn and elephant tusk will be discussed as well as other anti-poaching strategies that do not use remote sensing technology. Three key research questions are then answered: Which remote sensing technologies are in use and what kinds of companies and organisations are mainly working on their development? What are the main risks of using remote sensing technology to specifically target wildlife crime in this region? And can the increased use of remote sensing technologies to combat wildlife crime be regarded as an extension of the militarised approach to conservation? The last question is discussed in relation to existing research on this topic. Considering the findings from this paper, recommendations for further research are then made.

The thesis is a study of how Chinese illegal tiger parts trading networks are organized. In particular, this thesis tests in a qualitative manner the causal relationship between three independent variables and the network organizations of these markets. The three independent variables are “ethnicity”, “level of enforcement” and “proximity to the source country”. The thesis also discusses the dynamics of the illegal transactions of tiger parts products. Legitimate meditators or dispute resolutions mechanisms are lacking in the underworld so the risks, which the parties undertake during trading, are far higher. This thesis explores how illegal transactions are enforced, carried out and honored in this trade. In order to map the organization of the tiger trade, I conducted fieldwork in three trading hubs across China: Lhasa. Kunming and Xining. I discovered five tiger parts trading networks, three of which specialized in the trading of tiger skins and two in tiger bones. Within these networks, the level of perceived but not the actual level of risk influences the decisions of the actors in the network. Entry into the network is easy when the perceived level of enforcement is low. In these settings, there is no ethnic restriction for entering the network; the supplier is willing to trade with anyone with a trustworthy reputation. On the other hand, accessibility to the network is strictly controlled when actors perceive a high level of enforcement in their operating environment. Under this setting, the organization of the network becomes more exclusive and ethnically homogenous, as shown in the Tibetan tiger skin-trading network in Lhasa and the tiger bone-trading network in Kunming. The proximity of the tiger source country to the re-distribution sites (fieldwork cities) also influences the organization of the networks. When the level of enforcement is low and the tiger source country is far away from the re-distribution sites, a monetary deposit is required in order to show that the buyer is serious about his/her request, as shown by the tiger skin-trading network in Kunming.

The illicit wildlife trade (IWT) is the fourth most lucrative form of organised crime globally (Donnenfeld & Aucoin, 2017:1). The Global Financial Integrity (GFI) reports that IWT is one of the most profitable and illicit economies with a profit margin of US$ 23 billion annually (May, 2017:np). It has developed into one of the most expensive security challenges. Affecting a broad range of plants and animals, the illegal trade in wildlife deprives nations of their biodiversity, income opportunities, natural heritage and capital (Nowak, 2016:1). Although governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and locals have sought to protect wildlife in the past, entire species of animals and plants are still in danger. To complicate matters, wildlife crime is no longer nationally bound and has moved to a highly sophisticated and a transnational problem (Steyn, 2017:np). Wildlife criminal syndicates exploit weaknesses in neighbouring countries criminal justice systems and porous borders amongst other elements making it easier for the crime to be transboundary in nature (Pienaar, 2014:2; Steyn, 2017:np), through loopholes derived from inconsistent neighbouring countries’ wildlife laws. This is due to each country listing country-relevant species and developing legislation suitable to their needs. However, the dynamics of wildlife crime being transnational and perpetrated by organised criminal networks cannot only be dealt with at a national level, as this may aid in the exploitation of wildlife crime laws and the above-mentioned loopholes (Warchol & Harrington, 2016:25). IWT has become a serious and global problem and has developed into a well organised criminal activity, involving multiple TCN’s. Its clandestine nature, coupled with it being deemed as a low risk crime has allowed it to extend into other forms of TOC’s in the SADC region. South Africa’s abalone crisis has moved from a national wildlife crime to that of a regional one. This is as a result of the TCN’s being involved in the poaching and smuggling of the marine mollusc at a rapid rate. Furthermore, East Asian criminal groups in collaboration with local Cape Flats gangs have successively used the illicit abalone trade to facilitate the drug trade in Cape Town. Although great efforts have gone into the protection of wild fauna and flora there the low risk of detection and weak deterrence due to low penalties in neighbouring SADC countries aid in the illicit trade. International regulatory frameworks such as CITES have undoubtedly been a key factor both in terms of raising awareness and developing collective responses and strategies to control the wildlife trade. However, like that of CITES, most international and regional treaties are only regulatory and require domestic laws to regulate the regional trade in endangered species. Ultimately, what is required is a domestic consensus in neighbouring countries laws to stop IWT.

The renewable natural resources (RNR) of Senegal form the basis of socioeconomic development for the population of this Sahelian country of West Africa. However, because of the current maladapted policies and practices, these resources are in a crisis that has led to a major degradation of the socioeconomic and environmental conditions. To solve these socioeconomic and environmental problems, many solutions have been developed and implemented. However, because of their disregard for both socioeconomic and traditional cultural values, these attempted solutions have often contributed to the problems. To resolve this crisis, Senegal needs to adopt a new integrated management approach along with new integrated natural resources tenure and decentralization policies. Considering the country's limited economic means, the urgent need for policy change, and the necessary progressive implementation of a new policy, this new natural resources policy will need to be developed incrementally. It should take into account the existing policies and examine different alternatives from the current ecological, economic, and sociocultural situation.

Abstract Illegal killing of wolves (hereinafter ’wolf poaching’) in human-inhabited areas where wolves are also legally harvested is a special case of wildlife crime. This doctoral thesis examines wolf poaching in Finland and Sweden from the ecological perspective. In the first paper, we examined the causes of mortality among collared Finnish wolves and the role of estimated poaching rates on population changes. The second paper related the likelihood of being poached to covariates expressing different dimensions of the wolf conflict at two spatial scales (territory and country level) in Finland. Third paper turns the focus to Sweden, where we examined the disappearances of adult wolves in relation to population size, legal harvest and inbreeding. The first two studies were done in collaboration with the Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke) and the third with the Scandinavian wolf research project SKANDULV. Poaching outnumbered other causes of death. Most poaching cases were unverified. Other causes of death were legal harvest, traffic and natural mortalities. Both populations had a relatively high number of wolves with unknown fates. Inbreeding was not related to the disappearances of adult wolves in Sweden. Remoteness to human inhabitation and the detectability of the wolves from the forest roads (road crossings by wolves) increased the likelihood of poaching in Finland. Adult wolves suffered high risk of poaching in both populations. Risk was highest in early spring in Finland. Larger population size increased and the number of legally harvested wolves decreased poaching in both countries. Poaching seemed to limit the study populations despite the management efforts that used legal hunting as a tool to increase tolerance towards wolves
Tiivistelmä Suden ja ihmisen rinnakkainelo johtaa konflikteihin, joiden lievittämiseksi susikantoja rajoitetaan usein luvallisella metsästyksellä. Suteen kohdistuu lisäksi laitonta tappamista eli salametsästystä. Tämä väitöstutkimus selvittää salametsästyksen ekologisia vaikutuksia Suomen ja Ruotsin susipopulaatioihin. Ensimmäisessä osatyössä selvitimme suomalaisten pantasusien kuolinsyitä, arvioimme salametsästyksen voimakkuutta ja sen vaikutuksia populaatiotasolla. Toisessa osatyössä tarkastelimme susikonfliktiin liittyvien ennustetekijöiden vaikutusta laittomasti tapetuksi tulemisen riskiin reviiritasolla ja koko Suomen mittakaavassa. Kaksi ensimmäistä osatyötä tehtiin Luonnonvarakeskuksen (Luke) suurpetotutkimuksessa. Kolmas osatyö tehtiin osana skandinaavista susitutkimushanketta (SKANDULV). Siinä selvitimme populaatiokoon, luvallisen pyynnin ja sukusiittoisuuden vaikutuksia aikuisten susien katoamiseen Ruotsissa. Salametsästys oli susien yleisin kuolinsyy, mutta suurin osa tapauksista jää toteen näyttämättä. Muita kuolinsyitä olivat luvallinen metsästys, liikenne ja luonnolliset kuolinsyyt. Aineistoissa oli runsaasti kohtaloltaan tuntemattomaksi jääneitä yksilöitä. Yksilöiden sukusiittoisuusaste ei ollut yhteydessä susien katoamisiin Ruotsissa. Syrjäinen sijainti ja susien havaittavuus metsätiestöltä lisäsivät laittoman tapon todennäköisyyttä Suomessa. Salametsästysriski oli korkein kevättalvella. Aikuisilla susilla oli huomattavan korkea riski tulla laittomasti tapetuksi. Tutkimuksen perusteella salametsästyksen määrää selittävät erityisesti susipopulaation kulloinenkin koko ja luvalliset pyyntimäärät. Suurempi susikanta lisäsi salametsästystä ja metsästyslupien määrä vähensi sen riskiä. Salametsästys vaikuttaa säädelleen susikantoja siitä huolimatta, että susikonfliktia on pyritty lieventämään luvallisella metsästyksellä

Projeto de Graduação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para a obtenção do grau de Licenciado em Criminologia
A criminologia cada vez mais se interessa pela criminalidade ambiental, sendo o tráfico de vida selvagem uma das maiores problemáticas desta temática. Esta atividade está muitas vezes ligada a grandes associações criminosas internacionais, especialmente no tráfico de Chifres de Rinoceronte e de Marfim. Compreender de que forma este comércio ilegal põe em causa a segurança nacional, económica, ambiental e humana de um estado e os obstáculos que as instituições internacionais enfrentem no combate a este crime, são os principais objetivos deste projeto. Pretende-se também perceber que aspetos sociais possam estar a incentivar esta atividade, através de duas perspetivas: na perspetiva dos especialistas nesta temática e na perspetiva das comunidades das regiões mais afetadas pela procura destes animais. Criminology is increasing its interest in environmental crime, in which the Wildlife illegal trade is the main concern. This activity is often connected with big international criminal groups, especially if we are talking about the Rhino horn Traffic and Ivory Traffic. Understanding how this illegal market has implications in the national, environmental, economic and human Security of a country and the obstacles that the international institutions have to face to fight this crime, are the main objectives of this project. Also it’s intended to understand the social aspects that could be promoting this activity, through two different perspectives: Firstly from the perspective of the authors and specialists of this subject and secondly from the perspective of the communities that live in the regions where the search for this animals is big.

Wildlife crime is a longstanding problem. People have always considered living and non-living species as resources and tradable products used for pure economic gain, which then has a negative effect on biodiversity. In addition, wildlife crime involves poachers; armed non-state actors from source nations; international crime groups; institutional corruption across global network chains and a range of players involved in demand countries, which range from organized criminal syndicates, non-state actors and legitimate authorities. States and the International community are responding to wildlife crime in the form of law enforcement and regulatory initiatives. The question therefore arises, why does wildlife crime persist and what is the driving force behind these crimes and the people involved. For example, despite the broad legislative framework, the enforcement or rather lack thereof seems to be the reason that South African rhinos are still facing destruction. This paper aims to evaluate what the relationship is between wildlife crime with rhino poaching as a focus point, corruption and organised crime. It discusses the current enforcement framework, and investigates why the enforcement framework is not supporting the legislative framework. Lastly practical and structural solutions will be discussed and evaluated.

South Africa presently experiences high levels of crime daily. Although crime is accepted as an everyday occurrence for its citizens, it affects the economy of the country. This study analysed security measures implemented on Commercial Private Game Reserves (CPGRs) in Limpopo and the impact of crime thereof. CPGRs are enclosed areas containing various species of fauna and flora. Visitors from domestic and foreign origins visit these reserves to enjoy nature and its tranquillity. This study analysed the security measures to determine their effectiveness for CPGRs. The study further explored the use of security risk management strategies and risk assessments as crime reduction tools. The study was carried out using a case study research design. Data were collected by the researcher using three methods: observation, onsite checklists and semi-structured one-on-one interviews which were conducted on site. Validity and reliability indicate the trustworthiness of the study. The researcher reduced the data gathered through the use of thematic data analysis. Interviews were transcribed and themes were created and identified by the researcher. The comprehensive data indicated the importance of a security risk manager on a CPGR. The research found that very few security risk managers are employed and that managers of security risks employed on CPGRs have various titles. However, while the CPGRs have similar risks, their risk reduction strategies vary. The most commonly used measures are people, physical and technological measures with each having various subdivisions. The security measures implemented by CPGRs in the Limpopo province which were analysed are not formulated using a scientific approach as most properties do not make use of a formal security risk assessment. The study is deemed valuable as a model was developed from the findings that could be used by game reserves to guide them to apply relevant security measures. A formal security programme is often limited due to financial constraints of the reserve or the reserve owners, however, not all strategies should be considered as a financial expense as much can be done without exhausting financial reserves. The findings contributed to making recommendations to improve the overall security of CPGRs. This study encourages more research into the subject to improve the security industry and to stimulate the tourism industry.
Security Risk Management
M. Tech. (Security Management)

This thesis deals with legislation with the task of dealing with environmental crime in the area of illegal trading of flora and fauna in the Czech Republic. Of key importance for this thesis is the examination of domestic criminal legislation, it is supplemented by an excursion into related regulations of international law and European Union law. Introduce also the actual phenomenon of illegal trading of fauna and flora, its characteristic features, historical development, the articles most frequently traded, and other specific features that are typical of this type of illegal human activity. The theoretical bases of the thesis are enhanced by an examination of related practice in the form of practical examples, court rulings, and statistical data. Finally, this thesis also contains a few proposals for improving the existing legislation and raises some objections to practical application.

The illegal trade in endangered animals in KwaZulu-Natal, with an emphasis on rhino poaching, is tactically addressed in this dissertation. The aim is to expose the nature and extent of these crimes; the victims, offenders and modus operandi involved; the adjudication of wildlife offences; the causes and consequences concerned; the relevant criminological theories to explain these crimes; and recommendations for prevention. This research intends to examine the contemporary pandemic of rhino poaching in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and offer potential techniques for intervention. Furthermore, one of the main goals of the study is to reveal and enhance the extremely neglected field of conservation criminology. A general disregard by society for the environment, as well as the overall ineffectiveness and corruption of criminal justice and conservation authorities, comes to the fore. The purpose of the research is therefore to suggest possible prevention strategies in order to protect the rights of endangered species.
Criminology and Security Science
M.A. (Criminology)