Academic literature on the topic 'Wine and winemaking'

Old traditional winemaking countries are now ahead of new winemaking countries. In addition to countries with European and Middle Eastern viticultural traditions, wine production has begun on a large scale in Canada, Australia, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Australia and the Americas. The top wine exporters in 2019 are dominated by international wine trade in Italy, Spain and France - the total of 57.1 million hectoliters, which is 54% of the global market. Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States were the largest importers - a total of 40.4 million hectoliters, accounting for 38% of the global market. These three countries account for 39% of the total value of world wine imports, amounting to 11.9 billion euros. The US is the largest consumer of wine in the world, with a record level of 33.0 million hectoliters in 2019. Georgia has a serious potential to establish itself in the world markets with its uniqueness, with the introduction of innovative digital technologies. Keywords: Old World wines, New World wines, Wine Export-Import, Global Wine Market, Wine Economy, Viticulture, Harmonized customs system.

The wine making sector is directly intertwined with viniculture, which has been known since ancient times. Nowadays, Greece offers outstanding value for its wines and there are many new varieties that will certainly expand the customer's palate. In order to explore the sector's potential, financial statements and ratio analysis is implemented. In this study, 14 financial ratios are estimated in order to examine the domestic wine sector. This sample consists of 51 domestic wine producing companies. The uniqueness of this analysis is based on the fact that the individual financial reports are edited and properly adjusted in order for a consolidated balance sheet and profit and loss account, representative of the sector, to be constructed. The wine sector's perspective seems conducive to better control regarding primarily operating expenses. The findings could aid producers in the Greek wine industry in providing them valuable considerations and guidelines. The wine market is considered as an enjoyable, collectible, tangible asset that has an exciting future.

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from grapes that are greatly consumed in the modern society. Winemaking also known as vinification, is a process of converting fruit juice, in particular those from grapes into wine through the process called fermentation. The winemaking process involved many chemical changes, such as alcoholic fermentation, and malolactic fermentation (MLF). Microbiota which is used in the winemaking has great impact on the quality of wine, additionally, may cause negative attributes to some type of wines. Therefore, the modern wine industry tries its best to pay more attention to some critical quality control points to avoid off-flavors, and aim to produce wines with pleasant tastes with healthy substances, such as wine with antioxidant properties.

The impact of oxygen exposure during winemaking on metal ion concentrations in wine were investigated throughout the winemaking process in a Chardonnay wine. The concentrations of Al, Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Sn, and Zn were determined using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Oxygen exposure significantly impacted 13 metal ions at different phases of winemaking. However, only the concentrations of Cr, Cu, and Fe were impacted by early oxygen exposure during pressing, with lower Cr and Cu concentrations in wines that were aerobically pressed and lower concentrations of Fe in wines that were inertly pressed. The sequestering of Al, Cu, Ni, and Zn by wine lees was significantly affected by oxygen treatment, with lees collected from wines that were treated oxidatively sequestering significantly greater amounts of Cu and Zn and removing these metals from the wine supernatant. The metal ion that was most affected by oxygen exposure during pressing and handling was Cu, with significantly lower Cu measured in wines that were produced under oxidative conditions. It is known that elevated Cu concentrations have negative implications for wine aroma and flavour. This study demonstrated that oxygen management during winemaking significantly impacts metal ion concentrations in lees and wine, which may decrease the risk of developing taints and faults.

Each year wine production is increasing in the world. New consumers emerge from around the world. As the wine business increases the new trends come on the consumer market and winemakers are trying to keep up. By the information from Statista – biggest business data platform in 2019 sales of the wine in dollars was 378 277 million USD. For the wine business 2020 was big challenge. As the world was covered with pandemic disease COVID-19. During the first part of the year the sales of almost every product got decreased, same happened to the wine market. So, the wine producers had to create new trends of selling the wines. This way the wine business started to adapt with the world pandemic situation. In the end of the 2020 you can already meet new trends in all the parts of the winemaking like: production, marketing, sales, logistics etc. As 2020 was a big challenge in winemaking, the new trends have been created. In the article we discuss what has become popular in 2020 and what had changed in the trends of wine consumer market. We discuss the trends like online wine markets and sommelier. Also, Article will include the types of wines that became trends in 2020. In the article we have outlined all the opportunities, which helped wine sector and the people who work in winemaking to adapt the changes in world. We have analyzed the most innovations that has emerged with modern technology and methodology of production. Also, we have discussed the influence of the new trends on social and financial profit. In the end we summarized all the trends and possibilities to implement them in Georgian viti-viniculture, how each opportunity will affect Georgian economy. The purpose of the development is to increase the quality and also to keep up with the modern demand on both local and international markets. Keywords: Modern Trends, wine trends, international wine economics, Covid-19 situation, international experience in wine industry.

Based on historical, philosophical and cultural anal-ysis, the article examines the significance of wine in cultural and economic activities. Historical precondi-tions and factors influencing the emergence and development of winemaking in Transnistria, as well as the role of wine and winemaking in the culture of Transnistria. Non-ethnic influence and mutual bor-rowing of cultures in the process of formation and development of wine-making practices in Transnis-tria. Wine in the religious traditions of Transnistria. The role of wine in the process of spiritual socializa-tion of the individual. The concept of «wine» in the culture of Transnistria. «Basement» as a manifesta-tion of archetypal and local identity. Everyday Winemaking Practices in Transnistria. Identification and communication characteristics of the concept «wine». Wine and winemaking as a specific element of the tradition of work ethics and a form of mani-festation of regional identity.

Wine lees are defined as the sediment formed at the bottom of the tank or barrel after wine alcoholic fermentation. They have a heterogeneous composition and currently constitute 6% of the byproducts generated by each ton of wine grapes. However, it is the most under-researched of all the byproducts of the winemaking process. Therefore, with the aim of highlighting this byproduct, a physicochemical and nutritional characterization of winemaking lees from three different wine making processes (white, rosé, and red winemaking) was carried out. In addition, the technological properties of these winemaking lees were also analyzed. The lees analyzed in this research demonstrated an interesting nutritional and heterogeneous composition. Moreover, wine lees showed high values of emulsifying capacity. Thus, winemaking lees could be considered, in a preliminary way, as a new ingredient to be included in new food formulations.

The aim of this work is to compare two types of winemaking tanks, horizontal and vertical, using Nero d’Avola grapes, in order to assess the capacity of extraction of phenolic compounds that determine the quality of red wines. The study shows that in wine made by horizontal winemaking tanks, both anthocyanins and polyphenols have a higher decrease in time compared to wine made by the vertical type. The higher values of polyphenols found in the horizontal type appear to show that wines produced by this type of winemaking tank have a better quality in terms of health for antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of these molecules.

As a robust analytical method, spectrofluorometric analysis with machine learning modelling has recently been used to authenticate wine from different regions, vintages and varieties. This preliminary study investigated whether the molecular fingerprint obtained with this approach is maintained throughout the winemaking process, along with assessing different percentages of wine in a blend. Monovarietal wine samples were collected at different stages of the winemaking process and analysed with the absorbance-transmission and fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (A-TEEM) technique. Wines were clustered tightly according to origin for the different winemaking stages, with some clear separation of different regions and varieties based on principal component analysis. In addition, wines were classified with 100 % accuracy according to varietal origin using extreme gradient boosting (XGB) discriminant analysis. The sensitivity of the A-TEEM technique was such that it allowed for accurate modelling of wine blends containing as little as 1 % of Cabernet-Sauvignon or Grenache in Shiraz wine when employing XGB regression, which performed better than partial least squares regression. The overall results indicated the potential for applying A-TEEM and machine learning modelling to wine chemical traceability through production to guarantee the provenance of wine or identify the composition of a blend.

For centuries, wine has had a fundamental role in the culture and habits of different civilizations. Amongst numerous wine types that involve specific winemaking processes, fortified wines possess an added value and are greatly honored worldwide. This review comprises the description of the most important characteristics of the main worldwide fortified wines—Madeira, Port, Sherry, Muscat, and Vermouth—structured in three parts. The first part briefly describes the chemistry of wine flavor, the origin of typical aroma (primary, secondary and tertiary), and the influencing parameters during the winemaking process. The second part describes some specificities of worldwide fortified wine, highlighting the volatile composition with particular emphasis on aroma compounds. The third part reports the volatile composition of the most important fortified wines, including the principal characteristics, vinification process, the evolution of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during the aging processes, and the most important odor descriptors. Given the worldwide popularity and the economic relevance of fortified wines, much research should be done to better understand accurately the reactions and mechanisms that occur in different stages of winemaking, mainly during the oxidative and thermal aging.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Glutathione (GSH), a tripeptide consisting of glutamate, cysteine and glycine, is the most ubiquitous non‐protein intracellular thiol in a large variety of organisms, including plants, animals and fungi. The thiol moiety of the cysteine residue confers unique redox and nucleophilic properties. In plant cells, GSH fulfils an indispensible role in the antioxidant system, sulphur metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics. Upon grape crushing, GSH is extracted into the juice where it exerts several protective effects during the vinification process. In must, it reacts with oxidized phenolic compounds to form the colourless grape reaction product (GRP) which limits must browning to a certain extent. During wine ageing, GSH impedes the decrease of important aroma compounds, including certain esters, terpenes and volatile thiols, while at the same time preventing the development of atypical ageing off‐flavours. GSH may also inhibit the yellowing of wine during ageing. It is thus evident that elevated GSH levels in wine, in particular white wine which is more sensitive to oxidation, may be highly valuable for wine quality. The reductive crushing and pressing of white grape varieties, which limits oxidation and the consequent incorporation of GSH into GRP, promotes higher GSH levels in the juice. The reductive handling of juice also limits the formation of oxidized glutathione (GSSG). However, during alcoholic fermentation and maturation, levels generally decrease as a result of assimilation by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and inevitable oxidation that takes place during the vinification process. The principal focus of this study was to gain a better understanding of the fate of glutathione during alcoholic fermentation and to establish whether certain oenological applications could result in elevated wine GSH levels. The application studied, included choice of yeast strain, extended lees contact, nitrogen supplementation and supplementation with glutathione enriched inactive dry yeast preparations (GHS‐IDYs). In addition, the need for a rapid analytical method for the simultaneous quantification of both GSH and GSSG in must and wine which does not involve derivatization or require extensive sample preparation, led to the development of a novel UPLC‐MS/MS method. The method was also employed to determine intracellular GSH and GSSG contents of the yeast S. cerevisiae and was studied for the first time in winemaking conditions. It was shown that the GSH levels fluctuated during alcoholic fermentation, suggesting the uptake and release by yeast. At the end of alcoholic fermentation, levels were generally lower than those initially present in grape juice, but in some cases, concentration increases were also observed. This finding indicates that, in some cases, endogenously‐produced GSH may be secreted into must during alcoholic fermentation, contributing to higher GSH levels in wine. Albeit small, significant differences in GSH content could be seen in wines fermented with different yeast strains, implying that yeast strain may to a certain extent influence wine GSH levels. While the effects of lees ageing and nitrogen supplementation seem to be insignificant in contributing to higher GSH levels in wine, the supplementation of must with GSH‐IDYs could result in increased wine GSH levels, provided the supplementation is done early during fermentation. This study has broadened our knowledge of several oenological factors, influencing GSH levels in wine and provided a new baseline for future research studies.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Glutatioon (GSH), ’n tripeptied bestaande uit glutamaat, sisteïen en glisien, is die mees algemene nieproteïenagtige intrasellulêre tiool in ‘n wye verskeidenheid organismes, insluitende plante, diere en fungi. Die tioolfunksiegedeelte van die sisteïenresidu verleen unieke redoks‐ en nukleofiliese eienskappe. GSH vervul ‘n onmisbare rol in die antioksidantsisteem, swaelmetabolisme en die ontgiftiging van xenobiotika in plantselle. Tydens die maal van druiwe word glutatioon in die sap geëkstraeer waar dit verskeie beskermende effekte tydens die wynbereidingsproses uitoefen. GSH reageer met geöksideerde fenoliese verbindings om die kleurlose druifreaksieproduk (DRP) te vorm wat die verbruining van mos in ‘n sekere mate beperk. GSH verminder ook die afname van belangrike aromaverbindings tydens wynveroudering, insluitende sekere esters, terpene en vlugtige tiole, terwyl dit terselfdertyd die vorming van atipiese verouderingswangeure belemmer. So ook kan GSH die vergeling van wyn tydens veroudering inhibeer. Dit is dus voor die hand liggend that verhoogde GSH‐vlakke in wyn, in die besonder witwyn, wat meer oksidasie‐sensitief is, van waarde kan wees vir wynkwaliteit. Die reduktiewe maal en pers van witdruifvariëteite wat oksidasie en gevolglike inkorporasie van GSH in DRP beperk, bevorder hoër GSH‐vlakke in sap. So ook beperk die reduktiewe behandeling van sap die vorming van geoksideerde glutatioon (GSSG). Gedurende alkoholiese gisting en veroudering neem GSH‐vlakke egter af as gevolg van assimilasie deur die gis, Saccaromyces cerevisiae, asook onvermydelike oksidasie wat gedurende die wynbereidingsproses plaasvind. Die hooffokus van die studie was om ‘n beter begrip van die lot van glutatioon tydens alkoholiese gisting te verkry en om vas te stel of sekere wynkundige praktyke verhoogde GSH‐vlakke in wyn tot gevolg kan hê. Die studie het gisraskeuse, verlengde gismoerkontak, stikstofaanvulling en aanvulling met glutatioon‐verrykte, onaktiewe droëgis ingesluit. Daarbenewens het die behoefte aan ‘n vinnige analitiese metode vir die gelyktydige kwantifisering van sowel GSH as GSSG in mos en wyn wat nie derivatisering of uitgebreide monstervoorbereiding vereis nie, gelei tot die ontwikkeling van ‘n nuwe UPLC‐MS/MS metode. Hierdie metode is ook gebruik om die intrasellulêre GSH‐ en GSSG‐inhoud van die gis S. cerevisiae te bepaal wat vir die eerste keer in wynbereiding bestudeer is. Daar is bewys dat GSH‐vlakke tydens alkolholiese gisting fluktueer, wat dui op die opname en vrystelling daarvan deur die gis. Die vlakke aan die einde van alkoholiese gisting was oor die algemeen laer as vlakke aanvanklik teenwoordig in die sap. In sommige gevalle is konsentrasietoenames egter ook waargeneem. Hierdie bevinding dui daarop dat intrasellulêr‐vervaardige GSH, in sommige gevalle, in die mos uitgeskei kan word, wat tot hoër GSH‐vlakke in wyn lei. Klein, dog beduidende verskille in GSHinhoud is waargeneem in wyne wat met verskillende gisrasse berei is, wat daarop dui dat gisras in ‘n sekere mate die GSH‐vlakke in wyn kan beïnvloed. Alhoewel die effek van gismoerveroudering en stikstofaanvulling onbeduidend is, kan die aanvulling van mos met glutatioon‐verrykte, onaktiewe droëgis tot verhoogde GSH‐vlakke in wyn lei, mits die aanvulling vroeg tydens alkoholiese gisting gedoen word. Hierdie studie verbreed ons kennis van verskeie wynkundige praktyke wat GSH‐vlakke in wyn beïnvloed en vorm ‘n nuwe basis vir toekomstige navorsingstudies.

One of the most widely consumed beverages in many parts of the world is wine, which has been well-known since the early periods of civilization. Besides its economical importance, this beverage can have a positive impact on human health, including the anti – cancer effect. When you are citing the document, use the following link http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/31701

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is a developing country that relies on its agricultural sector as a main source of overall economic welfare. Development does not only give rise to new technology and new products but also results in increased amounts of liquid and solid waste. Generally, the production of wine is considered an environmentally friendly process, but significant amounts of natural resources and organic amendments are necessary, while generating large amounts of liquid and solid wastes. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive and proven treatment option for both liquid and solid wastes as valuable products and depollution can be obtained. AD of liquid waste results in an effluent and biogas, while anaerobic composting of solid waste results in an organic amendment, leachate and biogas. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the operational feasibility of the cotreatment of leachate produced during the anaerobic composting (AnC) of grape skins in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor while treating winery wastewater. This first aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of the anaerobic composting of grape skins. Laboratoryscaled digesters (1L) were utilised as anaerobic composting units. The most important operational parameters were identified (pH, moisture content and inoculum (size, ratio, composition)) in order to produce a pH stable, odour free compost in 21 days. Experimental studies highlighted the importance of shredding waste as well as the addition of calcium oxide and green waste to increase the initial pH of the composting mixture. After optimising a 50% (m.m-1) cow manure inoculum, lower inoculum concentrations (10, 15 and 25% (m.m-1)) were investigated to make the process more economically viable. A 10% (m.m-1) anaerobic compost (AC) inoculum was found to produce the most favourable results in terms of pH stabilisation and leachate generation. A 50% (m.m-1) moisture level performed the best by attaining a pH > 6.5 on day 6 and having the highest end pH (7.65) on day 21, while white and red grape skins in an equal ratio were found to generate a higher end pH. With all these optimum parameters in place (shredded waste, green waste, CaO, inoculum, moisture, grape skins), a compost with a final pH (7.09), moisture (58%), nitrogen (2.25%), phosphorous (0.22%) and potassium content (1.7%) was obtained. The optimised parameters were scaled-up (1:10) by using polyvinyl chloride anaerobic digesters (20 L) to suit the operational requirements of the AnC process and also produced a stable compost within 21 days. The second aim of this study was to investigate the combined anaerobic digestion of winery wastewater (WWW) and leachate obtained from the anaerobic composting of grape skins in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB). This involved the operation of a 2.3 L laboratory-scale UASB reactor for 205 days. The reactor successfully co-treated WWW and leachate at ca. 8.5 kgCOD.m-3d-1 with a final chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction of over 90%, a stable reactor effluent pH (7.61) and alkalinity (3 281 CaCO3 mg.L-1). This study showed the feasibility for the combined treatment of liquid and solid waste from the winemaking process. Although the legal limits for reactor effluent disposal onto land was not met, significant reduction in COD concentrations were achieved, whilst producing a soil amendment that could potentially result in cost savings for chemical fertilisers. The benefits related to using anaerobic bioconversion as a treatment option for liquid and solid waste could possibly be advantageous to the wine industry as an environmental control technology, by converting liquid and solid waste into valuable resources.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is 'n ontwikkelende land wat staatmaak op sy landbousektor as 'n hoofbron van algehele ekonomiese welstand. Ontwikkeling gee nie net aanleiding tot nuwe tegnologie en nuwe produkte nie, maar lei ook tot die verhoogde bydrae van vloeistof sowel as vaste afval. Oor die algemeen, word die produksie van wyn beskou as 'n omgewingsvriendelike proses, maar aansienlike hoeveelhede natuurlike hulpbronne en organiese kunsbemesting word benodig, terwyl groot hoeveelhede vloeistof en vaste afval gegenereer word. Anaërobiese vertering (AV) is 'n aantreklike en bewese behandelingsopsie vir beide vloeistof en vaste afval aangesien waardevolle produkte en suiwering verkry kan word. AV van vloeistowwe lewer uitvloeisel sowel as biogas, terwyl anaërobiese kompostering van vaste afval 'n organiese kunsbemesting, loog en biogas lewer. Die oorhoofse doel van hierdie studie was om die operasionele doeltreffendheid van die mede-behandeling van loog wat gegenereer word tydens die anaërobiese kompostering (AnK) van druiwe doppe in 'n opvloei-anaërobiese-slykkombers (OAS) reaktor terwyl kelderafvalwater behandel word, te ondersoek. Die eerste mikpunt van hierdie studie was om die doeltreffendheid van die anaërobiese komposteringsproses van druiwe doppe te ondersoek. Laboratorium-skaal verteerders (1L) is gebruik as anaërobiese komposteringseenhede. Die belangrikste operasionele parameters is geïdentifiseer (pH, voginhoud en inokulum (grootte, verhouding, samestelling)) om ‘n 'n pH-stabiele, reukvrye kompos te produseer in 21 dae. Die belangrikheid van gesnipperde afval asook die byvoeging van kalsiumoksied en groen afval om die aanvanklike pH van die komposmengsel te verhoog, is deur eksperimentele studies beklemtoom. Na die optimering van 'n 50% (m.m-1) koeimis inokulum, is laer inokulum konsentrasies (10, 15 en 25% (m.m-1)) geondersoek om die proses meer ekonomies uitvoerbaar te maak. Daar is gevind dat ‘n 10% (m.m-1) anaërobiese kompos (AK) inokulum die mees gunstige resultate lewer in terme van pH stabilisering en loog generering. ‘n 50% (m.m-1) vloeistof vlak het die beste presteer deur 'n pH> 6.5 te bereik teen Dag 6 asook die hoogste eind pH (7.65) teen Dag 21, terwyl wit en rooi druiwe doppe in dieselfde verhouding gevind is om ‘n hoër eind pH te genereer. Met al hierdie optimum parameters in plek (gesnipperde afval, groen afval, kalsiumoksied, inokulum, vog, druiwe doppe) is 'n kompos met 'n finale pH (7.09), vog (58%), stikstof (2.25%), fosfor (0.22%) en kalium inhoud (1.7%) verkry. Die optimale parameters is opgeskaal (1:10) deur gebruik te maak van polivinielchloried anaërobiese verteerders (20 L) om aan die operasionele vereistes van die AnK proses te voldoen en ook om 'n stabiele kompos binne 21 dae te produseer. Die tweede mikpunt van hierdie studie was om die gekombineerde anaërobiese vertering van kelderafvalwater en loog, verkry vanaf die anaërobiese kompos van druiwe doppe in 'n OAS reaktor, te ondersoek. Dit het die bedryf van 'n 2.3 L laboratorium-skaal OAS reaktor vir 205 dae ingesluit. Die reaktor het kelderafwater en loog suksesvol behandel by ongeveer 8.5 kgCSV.m-3d-1 met 'n finale chemiese suurstof vereiste (CSV) vermindering van meer as 90%, 'n stabiele reaktor uitvloeisel pH (7.61) en alkaliniteit (3 281 CaCO3mg.L-1). Hierdie studie het die uitvoerbaarheid van die gekombineerde behandeling van vloeistof en vaste afval van die wynmaakproses getoon. Alhoewel die wetlike vereistes van die reaktor uitvloeisel vir storting op grond nie bereik is nie, is ‘n beduidende vermindering in CSV konsentrasies bereik, asook die vervaardiging van kunsbemesting wat die potensiële aankoopkoste van chemiese kunsmis kan verminder. Die voordele verbonde aan die gebruik van anaërobiese bio-omskakeling as 'n behandelingsopsie vir vloeistof en vaste afval kan moontlik voordelig wees vir die wynbedryf as 'n omgewingsbeheerende tegnologie deur om vloeistof en vaste afval om te skakel na waardevolle bronne.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2007.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: With ever increasing pressure on wine producers to lower the financial costs involved in winemaking to be able to compete in the market, all while maintaining a high level of wine quality, the focus on maintaining control over all aspects of the winemaking process are greatly emphasized. Malolactic fermentation (MLF) is one of the important processes in red wine production. The advantages of this process, when performed successfully, is widely known and accepted. One way to gain control over MLF is the use of MLF starter cultures. Starter cultures usually consist of Oenococcus oeni that has been isolated from grapes or wines and is in most cases available in a freeze-dried form ready for direct inoculation into the wine when MLF is desired. Starter cultures are induced into wine and usually ensure the immediate onset as well as a fast and clean execution of the process. Starter cultures used in South Africa are in most cases isolated from cooler viticultural regions in the Northern hemisphere. The constitution of wines from cooler viticultural regions, differ from those in South Africa, which has a warm climate. The most important difference is the acid content of the wines which is lower in South African must/wines and results into a higher pH. The three most important changes that develop in wine during MLF are a decrease in acidity due to the conversion of malic acid to the less harsh lactic acid, enhanced flavour and aroma of wine and an increase in the microbiological stability of wine. The decrease in acidity is very important for wines produced for grapes grown in cool viticulture regions. In South Africa though, the climate is warm and higher pH’s are present in the musts and wines and the de-acidification due to MLF is not the main aim but rather the microbiological stabilisation. One of the compounds that could be produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is biogenic amines (BA’s). These compounds can be hazardous to human health. This thesis focussed on the performance of MLF starter cultures in high pH South African red wines. The first objective of the study was to stretch MLF starter cultures in high pH red wines of South Africa. Stretching means to use less than the prescribed dosage or the re-use of starter cultures. The difference in MLF rate, the influence of the natural occurring LAB and the levels of biogenic amines formed during MLF were determined for the different stretching treatments. The results showed that different rates in malic acid degradation were experienced between the treatments, but in all cases MLF fermentation was completed. Biogenic amines were formed at various levels and the influence of the natural occurring LAB also played a role. The second objective of the study was the evaluation of the effect of a wine isolated LAB (Lactobacillus) and an acetic acid bacteria (AAB), inoculated with a MLF starter culture had on MLF at different wine pH’s. It was found that especially in the case where the Lactobacillus was inoculated in combination with the MLF starter culture a possible stimulatory effect was experienced with regards to malic acid degradation rate. Biogenic amine concentration was measured at the end of MLF and it was found that no histamine and tyramine were formed in any of the treatments, while the putrescine and cadaverine levels were found to be at approximately similar levels for the different treatments. The third objective was to evaluate the possible influence of commercial tannin additions and a pectolytic enzyme on rate of MLF and phenolic composition of high pH red wine. The commercial tannins had possible inhibitory as well as stimulatory effects on the rate of malic acid degradation especially during the initial stages of MLF, with the highest dosage having the significant effect. The BA results showed difference in the levels produced due to tannin additions as well as strain differences could exist. The phenolic content showed a decrease in colour density, total red pigments, total phenolics and anthocyanins between AF and MLF. The fourth objective was to evaluate inoculation time of MLF starter cultures. The results showed that the fastest AF/MLF time was with simultaneous inoculation of the yeast and MLF starter cultures. It was also for this treatment where no histamine or tyramine was detected at the end of MLF compared to the other inoculation strategies (before the end of AF and after AF). This study generated a large amount of novel data which made a valuable contribution with regards to MLF in high pH red wines of South Africa.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die druk om wyne van hoë gehalte teen lae insetkoste te lewer om deel te bly van ’n kompeterende mark, plaas die fokus weer sterk op onder andere die beheer van alle aspekte van die wynmaak proses. Appelmelksuurgisting (AMG) is een van die belangrikste prosesse van rooiwyn produksie. Die voordele van AMG, in die geval van die suksesvolle implementering daarvan is vandag bekend en word geredelik aanvaar. Een van die metodes om beheer te verkry oor the proses van AMG is deur die gebruik van AMG aanvangskulture. AMG aanvangskulture bestaan uit Oenococcus oeni wat geïsoleer word vanaf druiwe of mos/wyn en is in meeste gevalle beskikbaar in ’n gevries-droogte vorm wat direk in wyn geïnokuleer kan word. Aanvangskulture word in wyn geïnduseer om die onverpose aanvang van AMG te bewerkstellig asook om ’n vinnige en skoon deurvoering van die proses te verseker. Die aanvangskulture wat in Suid-Afrika vir hierdie doeleinde gebruik word is in meeste van die gevalle verkry uit koue wingerdbou gebiede in die Noordelike Halfrond. Die samestelling van druiwe van koue wingerdbou gebiede en dié van Suid-Afrikaanse warm wingerdbou gebiede verskil. Die belangrikste verskil word ervaar in die suur inhoud, wat laer is in Suid-Afrikaanse druiwe en dus lei tot ‘n hoër pH inhoud. Die drie mees belangrikste veranderinge wat gedurende AMG in wyn plaasvind is die vermindering van die suur, as gevolg van die omskakeling van appelsuur na melksuur, die verbetering van die aroma en geur van wyn en die verbeterde mikrobiologiese stabiliteit. Die afname in suur is veral belangrik in wyne van koue wingerbou gebiede omdat die suur-inhoud daarvan soveel hoër is. In Suid-Afrika kan hierdie verlaging in suur egter lei tot ’n verdere verhoging in die pH wat plat wyne en uiteindelik ’n verlaging in die kwaliteit van wyn tot gevolg kan hê. Biogene amiene (BA) is verbinding wat melksuurbakterieë (MSB) kan vorm gedurende AMG en kan ernstige implikasies hê vir die mens se gesondheid. Hierdie tesis fokus op die evaluering van AMG aanvangskulture in hoë pH rooi wyne van Suid-Afrika. Die eerste doelwit gedurende hierdie studie was om AMG kulture te rek en die invloed daarvan in hoë pH rooiwyn te evalueer ten opsigte van the tempo van AMG, die rol van die natuurlike MSB te bestudeer asook om die vlak van biogene amiene te bepaal vir die verskillende behandelings. Die resultate het aan die lig gebring dat die rek van kulture verskille in die tempo van appelsuur afbraak tot gevolg het, maar dat AMG in alle gevalle wel suksesvol deurgevoer kon word. Die BA’e wat gevorm is, was teenwoordig in verskillende hoeveelhede. Die tweede doelwit was om die effekt van die gesamentlike inokulasie van ’n wyn geisoleerde MSB (Lactobacillus) asook ’n asynsuurbakterie (ASB) met ’n kommersiële AMG aanvangskultuur op AMG te evalueer. Hierdie eksperiment is uitgevoer by verskillende pH’s. Daar is gevind dat veral in die kombinasie inokulasie met die Lactobacillus, die tempo van appelsuur afbraak moontlik gestimuleer was. Geen histamien of tiramien is tydens AMG gevorm in hierdie eksperiment gevorm nie, terwyl putresien en kadaverien teenwoordig was teen ongeveer gelyke vlakke vir die behandelings. Die derde doelwit was om die moontlike invloed van kommersiële tannien toevoegings en die toevoeging van ’n pektolitiese ensiem te evalueer ten opsigte van AMG tempo die fenoliese samestelling van rooiwyn te bestudeer. Verskillende kommersiële tanniene het ’n moontlike sowel as inhiberende uitwerking gehad, veral gedurende die aanvanklike stadium AMG. Die grootste verskille is waargeneem in die behandelings waar die hoogste dosisse tannien bygevoeg is. Die BA resultate toon dat verkillende vlakke geproduseer was en dat hierdie verskille onstaan het as gevolg van verskille in tannien dosisse sowel as aanvangskulture. Die fenoliese inhoud het ’n afname in kleur intensiteit, totale rooi pigmente, totale fenole en antosianiene getoon vir die periode vanaf AF tot die einde van AMG. Die vierde doelwit was om the tyd van inokulasie van AMG aanvangskulture te bestudeer. Die resultate het getoon dat die vinningste tydperk van AF/AMG was ondervind in die geval waar die gis aanvangskulture gelyktydig met die AMG aanvangskulture geïnokuleer was. Geen histamine en tyramine het ook in hierdie behandeling ontwikkel nie, terwyl daar wel vlakke teenwoordig was in die ander behandelings (inokulasie net voor die einde van AF en na afloop van AF). Tydens hierdie studie is ’n groot hoeveelheid nuwe data geskep wat ‘n groot bydrae ten opsigte van AMG in hoë pH rooi wyne vanaf Suid-Afrika kan lewer.

Thesis (MSc (Wine Biotechnology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
Bacteriocins are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria and are active against other bacteria, either in the same species (narrow spectrum) or across genera (broad spectrum). The application of bacteriocins during the vinification process might help to prevent the production of undesired compounds by inhibiting the indigenous bacterial microflora and allowing malolactic fermentation to be conducted by a selected bacterial strain. Furthermore, the use of bacteriocins might allow reducing the total sulphur dioxide amount in wine. The purpose of this study was the selection of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) belonging to the genera Oenococcus, Lactobacillus and Pediococcus with the ability to produce bacteriocins, with respective biological activity against undesired indigenous wine LAB and the capability to complete malolactic fermentation. The first objective of this study was the screening of LAB isolated from South African red wines for the production of bacteriocins. Only 27 strains out of 330 wine isolates, belonging to the species Lb. plantarum, Lb. paracasei, Lb. hilgardii and O. oeni, showed activity towards various wine-related and non wine-related indicator strains with the colony-overlay method. It is the first time that bacteriocin activity is reported in O. oeni. The second objective was the detection and identification of known structural bacteriocin genes of Lb. plantarum wine strains. Furthermore, the web server BAGEL was used to in silico analyse putative bacteriocin-encoding genes in the genome of O. oeni and primers were designed to amplify four possible bacteriocin-encoding genes. A PCR-based screening revealed the presence of the plantaricin encoding genes plnA, plnEF, plnJ and plnK in five selected Lb. plantarum strains. Moreover, PCR analysis rendered positive results with all four chosen putative bacteriocin-encoding genes in the eight tested O. oeni strains with antimicrobial activity. The latter genes of O. oeni were heterologously expressed in different Escherichia coli host strains, but no antimicrobial activity could be detected. The third objective of this study was the transformation and expression of the heterologous bacteriocin genes nisin A and pediocin PA-1 in two selected Lb. plantarum strains. To enhance their antimicrobial activity a plasmid containing the nisin A gene was successfully cloned into the two strains. Indeed, an enhanced antimicrobial activity could be detected, but the transformed plasmid was not stable. The fourth objective in this project was the evaluation of bacteriocin production in liquid media. A co-culture experiment with a plantaricin producing Lb. plantarum strain and an Enterococcus faecalis strain as indicator was performed. A complete inhibition of cell growth of Ent. faecalis was observed within 72 hours. The last objective was the evaluation of the impacts of phenolic compounds on the activity of nisin and pediocin. The short term influence of two phenolic acids, two flavan-3-ols, grape tannins and oak tannins on the activity of nisin and pediocin PA-1 was investigated. No influence on the activity was detected. Furthermore, synergistic effects on bacterial growth inhibition were observed. This study confirms the potential use of either bacteriocin additives or bacteriocin-producing LAB in order to control the bacterial microflora during the vinification process.

In questo lavoro è stato investigato l'utilizzo di moderne tecnologie applicate alle metodologie tipiche della tradizione enologica. Le analisi svolte mirano ad approfondire la conoscenza delle modificazioni chimiche e sensoriali che si verificano nel vino e ne influenzano la qualità. In particolare questa tesi di dottorato si focalizza su tre diversi aspetti della vinificazione: I) L'impatto del tipo di contenitore utilizzato in vinificazione (durante e dopo la fermentazione). Lo studio si è concentrato sul confronto tra vini Chardonnay ottenuti con anfore di terracotta e contenitori di legno. I risultati hanno mostrato che il vino in anfora si distingue per il caratteristico profilo fenolico, volatile e sensoriale permettendo di differenziarsi dal vino prodotto in contenitori di legno. L’esito di questo studio mostra la possibilità di sviluppare un nuovo stile di vino Chardonnay ottenuto attraverso anfore di terracotta. II) L'influenza del tipo di tappo durante la conservazione in bottiglia: l'indagine ha riguardato il confronto tra vini chiusi con un nuovo tipo di tappo in microgranulo di sughero senza aggiunta di colla e tappi convenzionali in sughero. Il profilo fenolico, volatile e sensoriale è stato monitorato durante un periodo di conservazione in bottiglia di 12 mesi. I risultati dell'analisi evidenziano l'influenza dominante del tempo di conservazione rispetto al tipo di tappo sulle caratteristiche chimico-sensoriali del vino. Tuttavia, il confronto tra diversi tipi di tappi permette una migliore comprensione dell’influenza della composizione del tappo sulla conservazione del vino. III) L’effetto dell'associazione di proantocianidine (PAC) cicliche e non cicliche a ioni di potassio e calcio sulla stabilità chimico-fisica dei vini. Lo studio riguarda una nuova classe di proantocianidine con struttura ciclica recentemente scoperta nel vino. Sono state analizzate le proprietà chimiche di legame delle PAC con metalli di calcio e potassio per valutarne l’impatto sulla stabilità colloidale del vino. Il legame con questi metalli risulta influenzato non solo dal numero di unità monomeriche, ma anche dalla conformazione assunta dalle molecole.
The use of modern technologies applied to material and methodologies typical of the winemaking tradition are investigated in this work. The analyzes performed would like to provide helpful insights for extending the knowledge about the changing occurring in wine. Especially, this PhD thesis investigates three different aspects of winemaking: I) The impact of the type of container used during and after the fermentation: the study focused on the comparison between Chardonnay wines obtained with earthenware amphorae and wooden containers. The results showed that in-amphorae wine had a peculiar phenolic, volatile and sensory profile. This discovery allowed differentiating wine obtained through earthenware amphorae from wine made in wooden containers and provided knowledge for the possible development of a new Chardonnay wine-style obtained through earthenware amphorae. II) The influence of the type of stopper during the storage in bottle: the investigation concerned the comparison between wines closed with a new type of stopper made of microgranule cork without glue addition and wines closed with conventional cork-based stoppers. The phenolic, volatile and sensory profile were monitored during a bottle storage period of 12 months. The results of the analysis highlight the dominant influence of the storage time over the type of stopper on the wine composition. However, the comparison between different types of stoppers allowed a better comprehension of their influence on the final product. III) The binding of cyclic and non-cyclic proanthocyanidins (PACs) to potassium and calcium ions, which affect the chemico-physical stability of wines: novel cyclic proanthocyanidins recently discovered in wine, are investigated in the chemical properties to evaluate their impact on the colloidal stability of wine. The binding to these metals appeared to be influenced not only by the number of monomer units, but also by the conformation assumed by the molecules.

La presente tesi di dottorato riporta lo studio, la struttura e l’implementazione presso due aziende pilota di un software, I Wine, realizzato per la gestione delle operazioni di cantina e delle opera-zioni colturali. Il software, progettato per garantire la tracciabilità di prodotto lungo la catena produttiva, grazie alla configurazione per processi, fasi ed attività, consente all’utente finale di impostare il programma secondo le proprie logiche produttive. La struttura delle caratteristiche consente all’operatore di attribuire tutte le informazioni sul prodotto in elaborazione, senza dover modificare il codice base del programma. L’elaborazione e l’implementazione del programma è stata condotta da APRA spa (Jesi, An, Italia), in collaborazione con il dipartimento D3A dell’Università Politecnica delle Marche, nell’ambito del progetto Eureka. Il software è stato im-plementato in due aziende agricole molto diverse tra loro, per testare l’efficacia operativa della piattaforma. La prima, Settesoli (Menfi, AG, Italia) è una cooperativa agricola con 5 stabilimenti produttivi, che vinifica l’uva proveniente dai terreni di oltre 2000 soci conferenti. Il primo caso studio riporta l’implementazione del sistema di gestione della vinificazione, che è stato effettuato in 3 dei 5 stabilimenti produttivi. La seconda, Piovene Porto Godi (Toara di Villaga, VI, Italia) è un’azienda privata che possiede oltre 115 ettari di terreni coltivati a vite ed altre colture, le cui necessità sono quelle di gestire le operazioni colturali. Il secondo caso studio riporta l’implementazione del sistema di gestione delle operazioni in campo. I risultati principali di questo progetto sono l’elevata automazione delle movimentazioni di cantina e di campagna e la possibili-tà di ottenere immediatamente informazioni sulla storia delle lavorazioni dei prodotti in azienda, potendo evidenziare con un sistema di tracciabilità di prodotto, tutti i passaggi che hanno portato alla realizzazione del prodotto finito.
This PhD dissertation reports the study, design and implementation of a software, called I Wine in two pilot companies. The solution has been designed for the winery and farm operations man-agement. The software had to guarantee the product traceability throughout the production chain .The software, designed according to a process-phase-activity structure, allows the end user to configure the program according to his own production logics. The characteristics allow the opera-tor to assign additional information on the product processing, without the duty of modifying the software codes. The elaboration and implementation of the program was performed by APRA (Jesi An, Italy), in collaboration with the Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche. I participated in the study design, testing and final implementa-tion of the software platform. The software has been implemented in two companies in order to test the operating effectiveness of the platform. The first, Settesoli (Menfi AG, Italy), is a coopera-tive farm with 5 production facilities, which processes the grapes coming from the over 2000 con-ferrers. The first case study reports the implementation of the winery operations management system, on 3 out of the 5 production facilities. The second company, Piovene Porto Godi (Toara di Villaga, VI, Italy) is a private company that owns more than 115 hectares of vineyards and other crops, and needed to manage all the farming operations efficiently. The second case study reports the implementation of the farming operation management system, through which the users can automate the recording of the operations carried out on the company’s lands. The main results of this project were the high automation during the movements recording and the possibility to im-mediately obtain information on the processed products. The software highlighted the steps to the realization of the finished produc, together with the related information.

Thesis (MSc (Institute for Wine Biotechnology))--Stellenbosch University, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The process of winemaking involves a number of microorganisms, contributing both positively and negatively to the final product. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are present at all stages of vinification and therefore play a major role in the production of wine, especially red wine. LAB are responsible for malolactic fermentation (MLF), which can be desirable or unwanted depending on the style of wine. LAB can also be responsible for spoilage, and production of off flavours resulting in a decrease in the quality of the finished wine. Spoilage occurs if the wrong species are present at the wrong time and can also occur as a result of spontaneous MLF. It is therefore necessary to control the population of indigenous LAB present in the wine. Plantaricins are bacteriocins produced by Lactobacillus plantarum strains and have the potential to inhibit closely related strains that occupy the same ecological niche. This makes them promising for the control of LAB during the winemaking process. Inhibition of the indigenous LAB microflora could help to prevent the formation of undesirable off-flavours, as well as allowing for control over MLF. The use of plantaricin-producing starter cultures could also lead to a reduction in the amount of sulphur dioxide used in wine. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of L. plantarum strains isolated from wine to produce plantaricins under winemaking conditions. This potential was evaluated by investigating the expression of plantaricin genes under winemaking conditions. The first objective was to screen nineteen strains of L. plantarum isolated from South African red wines, as well as a commercial strain; for various genes responsible for the production of plantaricins, including structural, transport and regulatory genes. Results showed that the twenty strains contained at least 16 of the 24 genes (previously reported to be associated with the plantaricin locus for various L. plantarum strains) screened for. Only orfZ123 and orf345 genes yielded no positive results in any of the strains. The second objective was to sequence selected plantaricin genes (plnE, plnF, plnN, plnG and plnB) to determine the variation in nucleotide and amino acid sequences of these genes among the different wine L. plantarum isolates. High homology was found between the nucleotide sequences of the strains and none of the amino acid substitutions in the protein sequences occurred in conserved regions. The nucleotide sequence of plnN was identical in all but one of the strains and similarity of the plnB sequence ranged from 96% to 100%. Similarity of the plnG nucleotide sequence ranged from 99% to 100%. The plnE nucleotide sequence was identical in all but two strains and there were only two groups in terms of nucleotide sequence for plnF, with only two changes between the groups. The third objective was the evaluation of plantaricin production using plate assays mimicking certain wine parameters (pH and ethanol concentration). All twenty strains showed inhibitory activity to varying degrees against a panel of nine indicator microorganisms, including Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes and potential wine spoilage organisms, Lactobacillus spp, Pediococcus spp and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. Addition of 10% ethanol and a low pH of 3.5 decreased both the bacteriocin production as well as the spectrum of activity. Seven of the twenty strains, however, showed good bacteriocin activity under all conditions. The fourth objective was to investigate the expression of two plantaricin structural genes (plnEF and plnJK) and the transporter gene (plnG) under winemaking conditions. Two strains (R1122 and 113.1) were chosen, based on the results from the previous objectives, as starter cultures for MLF in synthetic wine media and Riesling wine. Low wine pH (3.2) and high wine pH (3.8) levels were investigated in conjunction with ethanol concentrations of 0%, 12% and 15%. All three of the genes were expressed to varying degrees depending on the fermentation condition. High ethanol and low pH generally decreased expression of the structural plantaricin genes. The influence on expression of the transporter gene was different, with low pH and presence of ethanol resulting in an increase in gene expression. The genes were also expressed in wine, although at a lower level relative to expression in the synthetic wine media. The presence of sensitive bacteria in the wine seemed to increase expression of the structural genes. Furthermore, expression of the mle gene responsible for MLF was investigated under the same winemaking conditions. Expression was shown to be inducible by malic acid, and negatively affected by the presence of ethanol but positively influenced by a lowering in pH from 3.8 to 3.2. This study confirms that plantaricin genes are expressed under winemaking conditions, which in turn indicates that the plantaricins could be produced under winemaking conditions. This confirms the potential use of these plantaricin-producing strains as starter cultures for MLF with the ability to inhibit indigenous LAB, however, presence of the plantaricin protein in wine still needs to be confirmed. It will also need to be established whether the protein is biologically active and not inhibited by wine-related factors.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die proses van wynmaak bevat 'n verskeidenheid mikroorganismes, wat postiewe en negatiewe bydrae kan lewer tot die finale produk. Melksuurbakterieë is teenwoordig by alle stadiums van wynmaak en speel 'n belangrike rol in die produksie van wyn. Melksuurbakterieë is verantwoordelik vir appelmelksuur gisting (AMG), wat gewens of ongewens kan wees, afhangende van die styl van die wyn. Melksuurbakterieë kan ook verantwoordelik wees vir bederf van wyn, asook die produksie van ongewenste geure wat bydrae tot ʼn toename in die kwaliteit van die wyn. Bederf van wyn kan gebeur as die verkeerde spesies voorkom op die verkeerde tyd en kan ook gebeur as ʼn gevolg van spontane AMG. Dit is dus nodig om die populasie van natuurlike melksuurbakterieë in wyn te beheer. Plantarisiene, geproduseer deur Lactobacillus plantarum wyn-isolate, het die potensiaal om naby verwante stamme se groei te inhibeer wat in dieselfde nis voorkom. Hierdie eienskap maak hul belowend vir die beheer van melksuurbakterieë se groei gedurende die wynmaakproses. Inhibering van die natuurlike mikroflora kan help om die vorming van ongewenste geure te verhoed, sowel as om AMG te beheer. Die gebruik van aanvangskulture, wat plantarisiene kan produseer, kan lei tot ’n vermindering in die gebruik van swaweldioksied in die wynindustrie. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die potensiaal van L. plantarum stamme, geïsoleer vanuit wyn, te ondersoek vir hul vermoë om plantaricins te produseer in toestande wat die wynmaakproses naboots. Die potensiaal was ondersoek deur te kyk na die uitdrukking van plantarisien-produserende gene onder wynmaak toestande. Die eerste objektief was om die 19 L. plantarum stamme, geïsoleer vanuit Suid-Afrikaanse rooi wyne, asook n kommersiele stam, te ondersoek vir die teenwoordigheid van verskeie gene wat verantwoordelik is vir die produksie van plantarisiene, sowel as strukturele, transporter en regulerende gene. Al twintig van hierdie stamme het ten minste 16 uit die 24 gene bevat waarvoor ondersoek was. OrfZ123 en orf345 het egter geen positiewe resultate opgelewer in enige van die stamme nie. Die tweede objektief was om die DNA-volgorde te bepaal van spesifieke gene (plnE, plnF, plnN, plnG, sowel as plnB) en sodoende die variasie in nukleotied en aminosuur volgorde van hierdie gene in die verskillende L. plantarum wyn-isolate te bepaal. Hoë vlakke van homologie was gevind en geen van die aminosuur veranderings het in behoue gebiede plaasgevind nie. Die nukleotied volgorde van plnN was identies in al die stamme, behalwe vir een, en die ooreenkomste tussen die plnB volgorde het varieër van 96% tot 100%. Die ooreenkomste tussen die plnG nukleotied volgorde het varieër van 99% to 100%. Die plnE nukleotied volgorde was identies in al die stamme, behalwe vir twee, en daar was net twee groepe in terme van nukleotied volgorde vir plnF, met net twee veranderinge tussen die groepe. Die derde objektief was om die vermoë van die stamme om plantaricins the produseer, deur gebruik te maak van plaat assays, onder verskillende wyntoestande te ondersoek. Die twinting stamme het verskillende vlakke van inhibering teenoor die nege toets-organismes getoon, wat Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes sowel as potensiele wyn bederf organismes, Lactobacillus spp, Pediococcus spp and Leuconostoc mesenteroides insluit. Die byvoeging van 10% etanol en ’n lae pH van 3.5, het beide bakteriosien produksie inhibeer, sowel as die spektrum van aktiwiteit verminder. Sewe van die stamme het egter steeds goeie aktiwiteit getoon onder al die kondisies wat getoets was. Die vierde objektief was om die uitdrukking van twee plantaricin strukturele gene (plnEF en plnJK), sowel as die transporter geen (plnG) onder wynmaak omstandighede te ondersoek. Twee stamme (R1122 en 113.1) was gekies as aanvangskulture vir AMG in sintesiese wyn media, sowel as Riesling wyn. Hierdie twee stamme was gekies op grond van die resultate wat van die vorige objektiewe verkry was. Lae wyn pH (3.2) en hoë wyn pH (3.8) was ondersoek in samewerking met verskillende etanol konsentrasies wat 0%, 12% en 15% etanol insluit. Al drie hierdie gene was uitgedruk teen verskillende vlakke, afhangende van die verskeie fermentasie kondisies. Hoë etanol en lae pH lei oor die algemeen tot ʼn toename in uitdrukking van die strukturele plantarisien gene. Die invloed op uitdrukking van die transporter geen was verskillend, want lae pH en die teenwoordigheid van etanol het gelei tot ʼn verhoging in geen uitdrukking. Die gene was uitegdruk in wyn, maar was teen laer vlakke relatief tot uitdrukking in die sintetiese wyn media. Dit blyk dat die teenwoordigheid van sensitiewe bakterieë in die wyn tot ‘n hoër uitdrukking van die strukturele gene lei. Die uitdrukking van die mle geen, verantwoordelik vir AMG, was ook onder dieselfde wynmaak kondisies ondersoek. Die uitdrukking was geïnduseer deur appelsuur, negatief beïnvloed deur die teenwoordigheid van etanol, maar positief beïnvloed deur ’n verlaging in pH van 3.8 tot 3.2. Hierdie studie toon dat plantaricin gene uitegedruk word onder wynmaak toestande en dat plantaricins moontlik onder hierdie toestande geproduseer kan word. Die potensiaal van hierdie stamme word getoon om as aanvangskulture gebruik te word vir AMG, om sodoende die groei van natuurlike melksuur bakterieë te inhibeer. Die teenwoordigheid van die plantarisien peptied in die wyn moet egter nog bewys word. Daar sal ook vasgestel moet word of die peptied biologies aktief is en nie deur wynverwante faktore geïnhibeer word nie.

The article presents an analysis of developers and manufacturers of technological equipment for wine production in the planned and market economy. It was found that most organizations of developers and manufacturers of equipment for wine production were re-profiled or ceased their activities. The wine industry is faced with the task of establishing discrete principles of winemaking with programming of individual processes and devices instead of automated production lines that do not have technological flexibility. And the law "on viticulture and winemaking", signed by the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on December 27, 2019, aimed at supporting individual entrepreneurs to promote wine products produced from grapes grown in the territory of the Russian Federation to the domestic consumer market and foreign markets, gives a new incentive to develop and manufacture domestic equipmen

The article presents an analysis of the law" On viticulture and Winemaking" of 2019, the opinions of experts and farmers on innovations. It is established that the majority of producers of wine-making equipment of the Soviet era either re-profiled or ceased their activities. At the moment, the market is dominated by manufacturers of equipment for low-tonnage wine production. The technical re-equipment of the wine industry is still far from complete, despite a large number of proposals from both domestic and foreign producers.

Wine tourism is considered to be niche tourism. The synergy of tourism and viticulture, which has become a significant phenomenon, is the focus of interest not only in European countries but also in other parts of the world. Old World wine regions have been inspired by the recognized and remarkable practices of New World wine producers. Two small wine pro­ducing countries, Slovenia and the Czech Republic were chosen for a study of tourism concerning grape growing and wine production. The countries appear to be very similar and share many similarities, for instance, in wine tourism development, and wine production tradition but also with the size of the vineyard area. However, these two countries are not renowned as leading wine producers. This, therefore, is a problem when endeavoring to attract potential visitors, customers, and the public in general. This paper fo­cuses on introducing the above countries as wine destinations and illustrat­ing their common characteristics. Methods such as description and compar­ison are presented to show the trends and strategies used to sustain wine tourism in small wine countries. Slovenia and the Czech Republic are coun­tries with a long winemaking tradition. Drinking wine or wine tasting is seen by wine visitors as a social activity, often accompanied by authentic local food amid rural surroundings and natural landscapes. Above all, this paper draws attention to two small wine-producing countries.

As a consequence of the changes currently taking place worldwide and nationally in the field of the wine industry, combined with the mobility of visitors, there is found a structural review of the overall picture of local wine complexes based on a number of specific principles: of continuity through the buildings with architectural value remaining on their territory, of priority of the ambient environment, of architectural diversity, of integration of non-production functions, of organization of the zoning of multifunctional public space, etc. The research directions of the study are focused on the assessment of the components of wine complexes in view of their capacity to deal with economic, social and cultural problems by creating an optimal structure and an expressive architectural aspect appropriate to the destination of the new requirements. This conditioned the option for the development of the subject, important as a current architectural and social phenomenon – the creation of the new image of modern winemaking enterprises.

“Don Valley” is more than a historic or geographic location, - it is an official name of a wine-making area, proposed by Rostov Region administration for consolidation of local wine-makers under the single mega-brand. Specialized regional cluster “Don Valley” is “an association of leading scientific, educational, industrial, engineering and innovative organizations and enterprises of the Rostov region, operating in the following areas: wine-making, manufacturing of components for wineries, scientific-research and educational programmes, development of retail infrastructure, promotion of wine-tasting and gastronomic tourism, and viniculture”3. The creators of the cluster official web-site declare “Made on the Don” brand communication as their primary goal, along with promotion of wine in the region. The article reviews the specifics of Don region from a standpoint of its attractiveness as a tourist destination. The mandatory components are named that together with the enogastronomic sphere can contribute to the growth of demand for tourist routes of various content and duration. The key role of cultural and historic component in successful promotion of the Don winemaking in the tourism market is emphasized. It is noted that enogastrotourism can be developed successfully in Don region through socio-cultural project management based on the thorough analysis of specifics of the region as a whole and its individual components affecting the marketing and advertising solutions.