Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Wipro'

This research looks into the implementation of the WIPO Development Agenda recommendation that intellectual property technical assistance (IPTA) programs to developing countries should be country-specific in their design, process of evaluation and delivery. Using the example of Malaysia and Kenya, this thesis identifies and examines local factors in Malaysia and Kenya to determine what makes them specific to these countries and how significant they are to the effectiveness of IPTA programs. Developing countries’ struggle in adapting their national systems to meet the global IP standards resulted in the provision of IPTA programs that have been criticized as ineffective due to the former one size fits all approach that did not tailor the programs to each developing country’s needs. The WIPO Development Agenda recommended a country-specific approach to address the previous approach. Although this recommendation has the potential to significantly revise the way WIPO provides technical assistance (TA) to developing countries, this research states that without proper implementation there is the possibility that WIPO IPTA programs will fall back into its old ways. This research tests the country-specific recommendation in Malaysia and Kenya by using a historical approach into understanding why these countries have local factors that permeate almost every aspect of their development, what makes these factors country-specific and how these factors could impact IPTA programs. The research finds that even though the local conditions in Malaysia and Kenya appear similar, the historical perspective show how the local conditions evolved into factors specific to each country with varying degrees of impact on IPTA programs. The findings suggest that implementing this recommendation would need to go beyond identifying the relevant local conditions, it requires an understanding of what makes them country-specific to help determine how to factor them into the design and delivery of IPTA programs.

The main objective of this dissertation is to illustrate the methodological process adopted for the creation a terminological database, an activity which was carried out in collaboration between the University of Bologna and WIPO. The work consisted in creating 71 terminological entries in English and Russian regarding the field of ceramics. The dissertation consists of three main parts. The first provides an overview of the main theoretical aspects of terminology, information mining, and corpus linguistics, focusing on their definitions, characteristics and application methods. The second part is the practical one, consisting in a preliminary overview of the context and nature of the collaboration and an analysis of the workflow. The third part focuses on the presentation of the final work and the problems faced during the terminological activity. The terminological entries and the conceptual maps are to be found in the appendix.

L'obiettivo principale del presente elaborato consiste nell'illustrare il flusso di lavoro e le metodologie applicate nella creazione di un termbase specializzato in collaborazione con l'Organizzazione Mondiale della Proprietà Intellettuale (WIPO) e l'Università di Bologna. L'attività terminologica si fonda sulla creazione di 86 schede terminologiche in inglese e russo relative all'ambito dell'ingegneria navale. La presente tesi di laurea è articolata in quattro capitoli. Il primo capitolo fornisce una panoramica dei principali aspetti teorici della terminologia, dell'attività terminografica e di corpus linguistics, concentrandosi sulle loro definizioni e caratteristiche. Il secondo capitolo fornisce una presentazione generale di WIPO e delle funzionalità dei suoi portali PATENTSCOPE e WIPO Pearl, e presenta il flusso di lavoro standard del progetto. Questo viene presentato in modo più dettagliato nel terzo capitolo, in cui si illustrano i passo compiuti per creare il termbase finale. Infine, il quarto capitolo si concentra sulle principali criticità e limiti riscontrati durante l'attività terminologica. Le schede terminologiche e le mappe concettuali sono riportate in appendice.

This paper has been produced as part of the examination in order to obtain a Master degree in Law (LLM), in Intellectual Property, at Queen Mary & Westfield College, University of London.
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The private sector has played and continues to play a decisive role in the shaping of policy-making concerning knowledge-based goods. The result is an unequal battle between access to knowledge and enclosure favouring the latter over the former. Such an unbalanced scenario chiefly affects the South, but has implications for the public everywhere. The Development Agenda being proposed for adoption by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and which has been advocated for and designed by developing countries governments in collaboration with a coalition of governments, academics, civil society and public interest NGOs from both North and South, is the latest attempt to bring a balance to this scenario. However, the Development Agenda is encountering opposition and despite the unique nature of the coalition backing it, the outcome is uncertain.

This thesis is a study of the development and uptake of an emerging infrastructural technology: the mobile Wireless Broadband technology and service known as WiBro in South Korea, and Mobile WiMAX internationally. WiBro has emerged through a national development effort since the early 2000s. The commercial service was launched in 2006. However, uptake fell far below initial expectations, only succeeding in niche markets. This study was motivated by concerns about the perceived gulf between development and diffusion and the ‘failure’ of WiBro. However, this study seeks to go beyond the technology-driven perspective that informs conceptions of diffusion gap: it aims to explicate the sociotechnical factors leading to such a gap. This study draws on Science and Technology Studies (STS) and in particular the Social Shaping of Technology (SST) perspective, which provides tools to scrutinize the interactions among the various interests and factors involved in the process of technological innovation. The SST perspective goes beyond approaches that treat technology as a static object to be developed and diffused. It provides tools to examine the complex and dynamic forces that develop technical capacity towards particular forms and uses. The ‘social learning’ perspective extends SST and provides concepts to explore the changing dynamics over multiple cycles of innovation. Here, Jørgensen’s concept of ‘development arena’ helps examine the interlinked, yet dispersed and multiple spaces in which differing goals, motivations and strategies of innovation players together shape technological innovation. Through comprehensive analyses of a longitudinal study of WiBro, a broader view of the process and the outcomes of technological innovation have been achieved. Rather than viewing the technology as a stable object that would progress in a linear manner through the stages of design, development, and diffusion, it has focused on the process of shaping of WiBro through multiple cycles of innovation. Several arenas of innovation were identified as diverse players sought to align their interests towards exploiting the resources, capacities, and tools for innovation that seemed to be available. In these spaces, conflicting and yet coevolving dynamics were observed: one involving coordination through alignments of multiple interests, and the other incorporating tensions and misalignments among the differing concerns, aims and commitments towards the innovation. The complex dynamics involved a multi-level game where the collective actions among the innovation players and their individual strategies diverged to a degree. Furthermore, changing contingencies, linked to shifting choices of innovation players, resulted in the deviation of the innovation from the initial visions and aims. The study thus illustrates the outcomes of highly divergent interactions at play in innovation process and the mutual enrollment efforts of players that constituted the distributed governance of innovation. Here the complex interplays among the innovation players involved in multi-level games produced a gap between the generic vision and the actual uptake of WiBro. Changing contingencies, especially linked to broader and evolving structures and relations - brought about the reshaping of the generic vision of WiBro. This research therefore suggests the concept of the ‘distributed governance of innovation’ as a new mode for governance: that accommodates not only differing knowledges and interests but also the shifting choices and visions through the various cycles of technological innovation. The boundary of social learning is thus extended to incorporate diverging choices over time and across the multiple spaces of innovation. Its implications for policy include achieving reflexivity by incorporating into the policy framework the learning process that takes place as the innovation players go through the varying stages and cycles of technological innovation.

Upphovsrätten står inför kraftigt förändrade villkor till följd av den tekniska utveckling vilken möjliggjort enkel duplicering av många upphovsrättsligt skyddade verk. Fildelning via Internet ökar kraftigt och rättighetsinnehavare ser hur deras ensamrätter missbrukas. Dessa är problem som förutses bli allt mer påtagliga eftersom piratkopieringen och fildelning ökar i takt med att allt fler får snabba uppkopplingar mot Internet. Lagstiftningen har inte hängt med i denna utveckling utan har snarare reagerat i efterhand på de situationer som uppstått. Samtidigt har allmänheten hunnit vänja sig vid en tillgång till musik, film och bilder via Internet. Myndigheter och andra intressenter har inte tydligt markerat det orättfärdiga eller lagvidriga i detta beteende. Konsekvenser av detta är att allmänhetens subjektiva rättsuppfattning skiljer sig kraftigt från den objektiva rätten. Rättighetsinnehavare ser således sina immateriella rättigheter urvattnas samtidigt som myndigheter står utan effektiva eller realistiska motmedel. Från branschens sida kan agerandet förklaras med rädsla för den bad-will vilken skulle bli följden av att jaga enskilda piratkopierare. Förklaringarna till myndigheternas icke-agerande är troligtvis flera, men viktigast, vid sidan av det faktum att rättsläget inte är helt klart, kan vara svårigheten att övervaka och upptäcka de illegala förfarandena. Man har, från branschens och myndighetens sida, försatt sig i en relativt svår situation. I detta skede kommer nu ytterliggare ett EG-direktiv på upphovsrättens område. Syftet med direktivet är att klarlägga rättsläget dels genom att uppnå en hög likformighet mellan de nationella lagstiftningarna inom EUoch att samtidigt driva igenom de överenskommelser som är resultatet av 1996 års WIPO fördrag. I denna framställning analyserar och diskuterar författaren Per Edstam hur rättsläget synes komma att utvecklas till följd av direktivet, och hur väl denna utveckling stämmer överens med upphovsrättens syften.

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CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
A presente Tese doutoral tem como tema o instituto da arbitragem para a solução de controvérsias relativas aos nomes de domínio e a OMPI, enquanto organização detentora de poder decisional. Para tanto, enfocará a arbitragem internacional, numa perspectiva sistêmico-organizacional, e seus fundamentos para a solução de controvérsias envolvendo os nomes de domínio a partir da Política Uniforme de Resolução de Conflitos da ICANN e a atuação do Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação da OMPI, enquanto atores de produção de decisões. O problema de pesquisa eleito reside no seguinte questionamento: As decisões comunicativas oriundas do Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação da OMPI proporcionam soluções adequadas aos conflitos sobre Domain Names e se revelam aptas a balizar a efetivação do instituto da arbitragem naquelas disputas? Visando à indagação proposta, estabeleceu-se como objetivo geral compreender a arbitragem como meio adequado para a resolução dos conflitos envolvendo os nomes de domínio a partir da atuação do Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação da OMPI e a vinculação de suas decisões. De modo específico, a pesquisa pretende: (a) estudar a teoria das organizações e os aportes da Teoria Sistêmica Luhmanniana; (b) analisar os signos distintivos, enquanto elementos do Direito de Propriedade Intelectual, e a importância da proteção ao Sistema de Nomes de Domínio em uma sociedade globalizada e de alta concorrência comercial; (c) apresentar a arbitragem como instituto não jurisdicional de resolução de conflitos para a redução de complexidade das controvérsias relacionadas aos nomes de domínios; (d) verificar, por amostragem, analisando suas decisões, a atuação do Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação da OMPI na resolução das controvérsias ligadas aos nomes de domínio. Para tanto, a pesquisa estabeleceu como procedimentos metodológicos: (1) a realização de levantamento bibliográfico, baseado em livros e artigos publicados em periódicos relevantes sobre a temática; (2) pesquisa documental, em que se analisaram os instrumentos estabelecidos pela ICANN e pela OMPI no que tange às políticas, regras e entendimentos jurisprudenciais dos casos envolvendo conflitos em nome de domínios. Face à vinculação à linha de pesquisa “Sociedade, Novos Direitos e Transnacionalização”, foi eleito para o seu desenvolvimento do trabalho o método sistêmico, preconizado por Niklas Luhmann, que não é indutivo nem dedutivo, visto que pretende descrever os sistemas (aberto e 8 fechado) e sua relação com o ambiente. Com a análise das decisões do Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação da OMPI, foi possível concluir que este se constitui como organização produtora de comunicações decisionais e vinculativas para a solução das controvérsias envolvendo nomes de domínio, sendo a arbitragem a técnica eleita. Todavia, o procedimento arbitral utilizado se diferencia do tradicional, porquanto a política da ICANN considera fundamental a publicização do conteúdo das decisões, caracterizando, assim, um modelo de arbitragem “sui generis”, específica para casos que digam respeito a domain name.
This research has as theme the arbitration institute for the solution of controversies relative to domain names and the WIPO, as an organization holder of decisional power. Therefore, will focus the international arbitration, in a systemic-organizational perspective, and its elements for the solution of controversies involving domain names, from the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP) of ICANN and the acting of the Arbitration and Mediation Center of WIPO, while actors of decision makers. The research problem elected lies in the following questioning: The communicative decisions from the Arbitration and Mediation Center of WIPO provice suitable solutions to conflicts over Domain Names and reveal themselves able to mark the effectiveness of the arbitration institute in those disputes? Aiming at the proposed quest, was established as the general objective, understand arbitration as appropriate means for the resolution of conflicts involving the domain names, from the performance of the Arbitration and Mediation Center of WIPO and the binding of their decisions. Specifically, this research intends: (a) study the theory of organizations and the contributions of Luhmann's Systemic Theory; (b) analyze the distinctive signs, while elements of the Intellectual Property Rights, and the importance of protection to the Domain Names System in a globalized society and high commercial competition; (c) present the arbitration as a non jurisdictional institute of conflict resolution for the reduction the complexity of the controversies related to domain names; (d) check, by sampling, analyzing their decisions, the performance of the Arbitration and Mediation Center of WIPO in resolving controversies linked to domain names. Therefore, the research established as methodological procedures: (1) the carrying out of a bibliographic survey, based on books and articles published in relevant periodicals on the subject; (2) documentary research, where was analyzed the established instruments by ICANN and by WIPO in what concerns the policies, rules and jurisprudential understandings of cases involving conflicts in domain names. Face to the linking of the research line “Society, New Rights and Transnationalization”, was elected to its development of the research, the systemic method, advocated by Niklas Luhmann, which is neither inductive nor deductive, since it intends to describe the systems (open and closed) and its relation with the ambience. With the analysis of the decisions of the Arbitration and Mediation Center of WIPO, it was possible to conclude that constitutes itselves an organization that produces decision-making and binding 10 communications for the solution of controversy involving domain names, being the arbitration the technique chosen. However, the arbitration procedure used, differs from traditional, because the policy of ICANN, considers essential to publicize the content of decisions, thus characterizing, an arbitrage model “sui generis” specific to cases involving the domain names.

La préoccupation initiale de cette recherche était d’évaluer le rôle que pouvaient jouer les OIG dans la bonne gouvernance mondiale. Il s’agissait donc de savoir si les OIG étaient capables de penser globalement ou si elles demeuraient liées par les politiques des grands Etats. L’enjeu principal est ainsi devenu la mesure de leur degré d’autonomisation face aux intérêts des grandes puissances. Dans ce but, nous nous sommes penchés sur leur élargissement vers de nouveaux domaines d’action, pas nécessairement inscrits dans leur mandat initial et qui peuvent même changer la nature de l’Organisation. Cet élargissement dicté par l’environnement des OIG, engendre chevauchement et recoupement, et impose l’analyse de la coopération éventuelle entre elles. Nous avons donc étudié le rapport entre l’autonomisation des OIG, leur élargissement et leur coopération, en supposant qu’une plus grande autonomisation permettrait un plus grand élargissement et exigerait, en principe, une plus grande coopération. A cet effet, trois Organisations ont fait l’objet de notre étude de cas. Il s’agit de l’UNESCO, l’OMC et l’OMPI. Certes, les trois Organisations ont des origines différentes mais elles se croisent après un élargissement ou un développement de leurs activités autour d’un lieu commun : la culture. Un sujet apparemment « soft » mais qui camoufle des enjeux économiques assez importants. Il divise la communauté internationale et crée des tensions sérieuses au sein des forums internationaux. La domination culturelle remet en question la diversité culturelle. Les PED sont de plus en plus en difficulté pour sauvegarder leur culture face à l’ouverture des marchés et au développement de la technologie dictés par la globalisation. L’inquiétude face à la domination culturelle est également celle de quelques pays développés comme le Canada, la France, qui voient leurs territoires dévastés par la culture américaine surtout au niveau de la production cinématographique. Nous avons pu dégager à travers notre recherche que le rapport entre les OIG à travers la production des différentes normes dans le domaine culturel apparait plutôt conflictuel que coopératif, même si paradoxalement ce sont les mêmes Etats qui adoptent les différentes normes ici et là. Il semble que le jeu de pouvoir dans les différentes Organisations n’est pas le même, les acteurs ne sont pas les mêmes, les enjeux ne sont pas les mêmes et les valeurs ne sont pas les mêmes. Ceci dit, l’autonomie ou l’autonomisation recherchée par les OIG les pousse dans une direction qui n’est pas tout le temps favorable à la coopération interétatique. Il en découle la multiplicité des normes d’une part et leur incompatibilité d’autre part. Dans certains cas, elles sont même contradictoires. De même, la hiérarchie entre les OIG n’est pas fixée d’une façon permanente. Elle est plutôt changeable et réversible. Tout dépend de la façon dont l’Organisation poursuit ses objectifs, et comment elle interagit avec son milieu. Les Organisations « faibles » ou « idéologiques » ont leur fonction dans l’architecture mondiale. Elles se placent entre les pays riches et les pays pauvres et tentent d’établir un certain équilibre, rompu par les forces économiques. Ces Organisations peuvent minimiser ou bloquer ou retarder l’application des normes. Nous concluons avec l’idée que le conflit ou la compétition entre les différents acteurs de la scène internationale y compris les OIG rend la gouvernance mondiale acceptable mais que la bonne gouvernance mondiale reste une utopie
The first concern of this research at its inception was to assess the role of Intergovernmental Organizations in global Governance. Are IGOs able to think globally or are they so tied to the most powerful states that they lack autonomy? The next step was to measure the degree of autonomy of these IGOs and their capacity to go beyond the most powerful states interests. We also aim as studying the process of their extension to new fields that are not necessarily mentioned in their initial mandate and that could even change the nature of the Organization. This extension dictated by their environment generates overlapping actions and cross-cheking procedures, which make the study of an eventual cooperation between them necessary. Our objective is therefore to study the relationship between IGO's autonomy (i.e., the process of their autonomisation), their extension and their cooperation. The greater is the autonomy of an IGO, the greater is its extension, and supposedly greater is its cooperation. For that purpose, our case study focuses on three Organizations that have the subject of culture in common: UNESCO, WTO and WIPO. Indeed, these three Organizations have different origins but are dealing with culture, since they extended their initial scope of interest. UNESCO dealt first with the physical heritage and then with the intangible heritage and eventually addressed the diversity of cultural expressions that can includes tradable goods and services. WTO, which was originally conceived as a Forum of negotiation for free trade, is now involved in Intellectual property of cultural goods through the TRIPS. WIPO, the technical Organization for Intellectual property now harbors a debate on Traditional knowledge, Genetic resources and Folklore. These subjects are obviously related to UNESCO's intangible heritage and cultural expressions, and to the concerns of the WTO since the products of Traditional knowledge and genetic resources are tradable goods. Thus, the intersection point between these three Organizations is culture. A subject that is apparently soft is actually hiding important economic issues. In particular, it divides the international community and is the source of serious tension in international fora. Cultural domination is threatening cultural diversity. The developing countries are becoming more and more unable to preserve their culture when confronted to open markets and to the technology development enhanced by globalization. Some developed countries such as Canada and France are also worried about the threatening of their culture by an American invasion of their territories through cinema and television productions. We conclude that the relationship between different IGOs in the field of cultural norms production looks more conflictual than cooperative even if, paradoxically, the same states are adopting the norms in most fora. Since the power game was different in each Organization, actors and values are different as well. Consequently, the autonomy targeted by IGOs is not always translated into a better inter states cooperation. It generates a multiplicity of norms. In some cases, they are even contradictory. Likewise, the hierarchy of IGOs is not permanent, but changing and reversible. The rank of an IGO depends on how it is pursuing its objectives and how it is reacting with its environment. The weakest or the most ideological Organizations have a function in the international architecture. They are positioning themselves between rich and poor countries, and try to establish some balance, not to be overwhelmed by big economic players. These Organizations can minimize, block or delay norms' implementation. Thus, it is the competition between the different actors that makes global governance acceptable. Therefore, good global governance remains an utopia

Após 15 anos de sua adoção pelos Membros da Organização Mundial do Comércio, o Acordo sobre os Aspectos da Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados ao Comércio (TRIPS) ainda permanece como um dos pilares das modernas instituições do sistema internacional da propriedade intelectual e merece contínua análise de seus efeitos sobre países em desenvolvimento. Nesse sentido, tendências expansionistas e níveis mais elevados de proteção dos direitos de propriedade intelectual, nas distintas esferas do multilareralismo, bilateralismo e regionalismo, são, no entanto, confrontadas com as necessidades reais dos países em desenvolvimento, que ainda devem explorar as flexibilidades existentes no Direito Internacional da Propriedade Intelectual. Isso parece ser evidente após a fase de transição do Acordo TRIPS. A implementação de obrigações relacionadas à proteção substantiva e procedimentos de aplicação efetiva da proteção (observância) dá lugar para controvérsias resultantes das demandas pelo acesso aos bens do conhecimento - bens da tecnologia e informação na ordem internacional. O presente trabalho oferece contribuição para o estudo do Direito Internacional da Propriedade Intelectual na Era Pós-OMC e propõe uma análise e reavaliação de seus elementos, princípios e objetivos. Enfatiza a tarefa imperativa de redefinição do equilíbrio intrínseco da propriedade intelectual e a manutenção e expansão do domínio público, concebidos como valores de ordem pública internacional. Nesse contexto, o trabalho propõe analisar os objetivos futuros de um regime internacional da propriedade intelectual, em parte consolidados pelos proponentes da Declaração de Doha sobre TRIPS e Saúde Pública e a Agenda da OMPI para o Desenvolvimento. Em sua estrutura, o trabalho divide-se em três partes. A primeira parte (Status Quo: O Presente e o Passado dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual na Ordem Internacional) analisa as políticas e objetivos justificam o regime internacional da propriedade intelectual, seus fundamentos no Pós-OMC/TRIPS e convergência das competências relacionadas à propriedade intelectual na ordem internacional. A segunda parte (O Passado Revisitado rumo ao Futuro dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual) aborda as implicações das tendências expansionistas e fortalecimento dos padrões de proteção da propriedade intelectual, concentrando-se em dois casos principais: a harmonização substantiva e os sistemas globais de proteção e observância dos direitos de propriedade intelectual. A terceira parte (Futuro dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual na Ordem Internacional) propõe a redefinição dos princípios e objetivos centrais do Direito Internacional da Propriedade Intelectual no Pós-OMC (equilíbrio, transparência, cooperação internacional e transferência de tecnologia) e a manutenção e expansão do domínio público, flexibilidades e opções para acesso aos bens da tecnologia e informação.
After 15 years from its adoption by the Member States of World Trade Organization, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) still remains as one of the main pillars of the modern institutions of international intellectual property system and deserves a continuous assessment analysis of its overall impacts on developing countries, their innovation systems and developmental concerns. In this sense, expansionist trends and higher levels of protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) in multilateral, regional and bilateral levels - are nevertheless confronted with the actual needs of developing countries in exploring existing and pending flexibilities within the international intellectual property legal regime. This appears to be true particularly after the post-transitional phase of TRIPS Agreement, where implementation of the multilateral obligations related to substantive protection and enforcement procedures gave rise to considerable contentious issues emerging from demands for access to global public goods, knowledge goods. This Doctoral Thesis offers a contribution to the current debate on International Intellectual Property Law in Post-WTO Era and proposes an analysis and reappraisal of its elements, principles and objectives. The work aims at focusing the imperative task of redefining the intrinsic balance of intellectual property and maintenance and expansion of the public domain as values of an international ordre public. In this context, we analyze the systemic objectives of a prospective international intellectual property regime, which were in part consolidated by the proponents of Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health of 2001 and WIPO Development Agenda. In the first part (Status Quo: Past and Present of Intellectual Property in International Order) we analyze the main development of the current international intellectual property regime, its foundations in Post WTO/TRIPS, and convergent intellectual property related competences in international legal order. The second part (Present revisited towards the future of intellectual property rights) approaches the implications of expansionist trends and strengthening of standards of IP protection. In this case, our work focuses on two particular cases: the substantive harmonization and global protection systems and enforcement of intellectual property rights. The third part (Future of Intellectual Property Rights in International Legal System) further analyses core objectives and principles of International Intellectual Property Law in Post-WTO (balance, transparency, international cooperation and transfer of technology) and proposals for the maintenance and expansion of public domain, flexibilities and options for the access to the knowledge goods.

This thesis examines the implementation, enforcement and evolution of IP laws and regulations in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The period of interest includes the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty first century, with emphasis on the role played by Free Trade Agreements struck between Jordan and the United States, the European Union, and Jordan’s accession to the World Trade Organization. This thesis also examines the enforcement of the current set of IP laws in Jordan, and looks at their social and economic compatibility with the Jordanian societal norms and economic realities. This thesis argues that Jordanian IP laws lack a meaningful social and economic texture, and have failed to be evenly enforced in Jordan, essentially because they do not fit the Jordanian culture and are not compatible with Jordan’s economic stage of development. Additionally, the thesis argues that IP laws have had insignificant economic impact on the Jordanian economy as the majority of technologies used in Jordan, and the majority of foreign direct investments attracted to Jordan, are not IP related. Finally, the thesis argues that the current Jordanian enforcement model, which is built on coercion by donor countries, is serving the interests of foreign companies to the exclusion of the local citizens, and will not, in the long run, produce an enforcement model based on self-regulation by Jordanians, themselves. The laws, therefore, are unable to produce tangible results for the Jordanian people, or help meet their economic interests. The last part of the thesis deals with recommendations and suggestions aimed at creating an integrated approach to the adoption of IP policies.

Depuis l’adoption de l’Accord sur les ADPIC en 1994, la question relative à la protection de la propriété́ intellectuelle occupe une place centrale dans les débats concernant le régime de commerce multilatéral de l’OMC. Certains ont salué́ l’Accord en tant que victoire pour le commerce international et l’intégration économique, mais très rapidement, un mouvement de contestation est apparu parmi la société civile et la doctrine soulignant l’inefficacité et même les conséquences nocives du régime commercial de propriété intellectuelle sur les pays en développement. Ces critiques se sont intensifiées avec la conclusion d’accords de partenariat économique comprenant des clauses ADPIC-plus renforçant davantage le régime de protection. Toutefois, très peu d’importance a été accordée jusqu’à présent au lien juridique entre le droit de la propriété intellectuelle et le commerce international. L’incorporation des normes de propriété intellectuelle dans les accords commerciaux internationaux est avant tout une mise en rapport entre deux branches juridiques qui autrefois étaient largement séparées. Chaque branche poursuit des objectifs précis et a évolué de manière indépendante, ce qui soulève de nombreuses questions concernant leur possible « cohabitation » et les effets juridiques liés à cette interaction systémique. Cette étude tente d’apporter des réponses à ces questions en analysant la situation spécifique des pays en développement, lesquels sont les plus affectés par le renforcement constant du niveau de protection de la propriété intellectuelle. L’objectif étant de déterminer comment le régime commercial de propriété intellectuelle peut être adapté à leurs besoins et intérêts
Since the adoption of the TRIPS Agreement in 1994, the protection of intellectual property has been at the center of the debates concerning the international trade regime. While some have hailed the Agreement as a great success for international trade and economic integration, scholars and civil society have rapidly voiced their concern highlighting the inefficiency and even the harmful effects resulting from the implementation of a trade regime for intellectual property. These critiques have intensified following the conclusion by developing countries of a series of free trade agreements containing provision raising the level of protection for intellectual property rights. Yet, scholars have so far given very little attention to the concept of “trade-relatedness” as well as to the legal aspects of the relationship between intellectual property and international trade. The inclusion of intellectual property norms in international trade agreements is first and foremost a linkage between two distinct legal regimes. Each regime has its own objectives, rational and has evolved independently from the other. Numerous questions therefore arise as to how these two sets of norms could coexist and what legal effects are likely to flow from such a systemic interaction. This study seeks to provide answers to these questions by analyzing the specific situation of developing countries as they are the most affected by the rising standards of intellectual property protection. The aim is to determine the modalities and conditions under which the trade regime for intellectual property could be adapted to the interests and needs of developing countries

Die Studie wird in fünf Teile unterteilt: Das erste Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit Patentanmeldungen und geförderten Patenten im USPTO, WIPO, und EPO. In diesem Kapitel wird die Korrelation zwischen dem BIP und der länderspezifischen Patentanzahl analysiert. Das zweite Kapitel gibt einen Überblick über die Literatur über Patente in MEDLINE. In diesem Kapitel wird eine szientometrische Analyse durchgeführt, damit die Entwicklung der Patentliteratur in MEDLINE über den Zeitraum von 1965 bis 2005 quantitativ gemessen werden kann. Das dritte Kapitel befasst sich mit der Literatur über Patente im SCI. In diesem Kapitel werden alle Dokumente, die vom SCI über den Zeitraum 1965 bis 2005 als “Patents“ indexiert wurden, unter die Lupe genommen. Das vierte Kapitel analysiert die Patenten, die im SCI zitiert werden. Das fünfte Kapitel analysiert die Anzahl der Literaturhinweise (Referenzen) pro Veröffentlichung im SCI über den Zeitraum 1970-2005. In diesem Hinblick wurde eine Gesamtzahl von 10,000 Dokumenten pro Jahr ausgesucht sowie der Bedeutungswert von Nennungen pro Zeitschrift berechnet. Die Analyse der Daten ergab: Die USA sind das führende Land bezüglich der Erstellung und der Zulassung von Patenten, gleichermaßen gefolgt von Japan und Deutschland. Die Halbwertszeit der Zitierung von Patenten beträgt seit 1994 konstant 8,1 Jahre. Das ist eine 41% längere Zitierungsrate gegenüber den allgemeinen wissenschaftlichen Dokumenten im SCI. Es gibt eine lineare Korrelation zwischen der Zahl von Literaturhinweisen (Referenzen) in einem Journal, wie sie im SCI erfasst sind, und der Wahrscheinlichkeit zitiert zu werden. Die Anzahl der Literaturhinweise (Referenzen) pro Veröffentlichung zwischen 1970 und 2005 im SCI ist ständig angestiegen. Die Selbstzitation von Zeitschriften bei einer steigenden Zahl von Verweisen beeinflusst die Steigerung des Impact Factor im SCI. Die Leitartikelpolitik der Sprachen wurde in der MEDLINE und im SCI geändert.
This study is divided into five sections. The first section consists of patent applications and granted patents issued by USPTO, WIPO), and EPO. In this section the relationship between the GDP and country’s patent quantity is analysed. The second section analysis the patent literature in MEDLINE. In this section a scientometric analysis is performed to assess the quantitative trend of patent literature in MEDLINE throughout 1965-2005. The third section analysis the patent literature in the SCI. In this section all documents indexed as a topic of “patents” in the SCI throughout 1965-2005 are analysed. The fourth section analysis the citations to the patent documents indexed in the SCI, and illustrate the average number of cited references per paper for patent citing documents. The fifth section analysis the references per paper in the SCI through 1970-2005. The Analyses of data showed: The USA is the leading country filing and granting patents followed by Japan and Germany respectively. The half-life of citations to the patent-documents is 41% higher than the half-life of citations to the general scientific documents in the SCI. The number of references per paper from 1970 to 2005 has steadily increased. The rough constant percentage of self-citation of journals and the growing increase of references per paper led to the absolute growing number of self-citations and to the increase of the Impact Factor of the citing journals in the SCI. The editorial policy of languages is being changed in MEDLINE and in the SCI. The consideration of policy makers in these databases have been focused on the literature of science in English. There was a tendency in the last decades towards collaboration in scientific publishing with American authors that can be observed in the SCI with authors from different countries.

L’appel au renforcement de la protection du droit d’auteur dans le but de mieux lutter contre la contrefaçon, surtout avec l’avènement et le développement incessant des nouvelles technologies, est-il justifié ? Le bilan des efforts déployés récemment sur la scène internationale pour réaliser un tel renforcement, ayant débouché sur l’élaboration du très controversé ACTA, démontre que la réponse à cette question ne peut être ni simple ni immédiate. Evaluer l’opportunité et déterminer la nécessité de renforcer cette protection ne peuvent se faire qu’après un examen approfondi des solutions juridiques, existantes déjà dans les dispositifs nationaux des deux Etats qui assurent chacun une protection efficace des droits des auteurs, tout en adoptant des approches diamétralement opposées en la matière à savoir, la France et les Etats-Unis. Une fois ces deux droits comparés, une inégalité dans le niveau de protection ressort, appelant des améliorations qui passent par une intégration d’institutions juridiques « venues d’ailleurs ». Cette intégration qui aura pour résultat d’harmoniser ces deux droits, dans le respect des particularismes nationaux, pourra se réaliser à l’aide du droit comparé. L’harmonisation des droits nationaux dans le respect de leurs différences est aussi l’oeuvre du droit international surtout lorsqu’il s’agit d’une matière qui ne peut être traitée qu’à l’échelle internationale, voire mondiale. Pour pouvoir comprendre les raisons de la persistance des différences entre les deux droits menant à cette inégalité, l’examen des instruments internationaux adoptés en la matière, censés harmoniser la protection du droit d’auteur, est indispensable. Le bilan de cet examen s’avère mitigé dans la mesure où, les spécificités nationales l’emportent, bloquant ainsi le processus d’harmonisation. Or, le droit comparé a comme rôle principal de préparer un terrain favorable à une harmonisation internationale réussie, en dégageant des solutions concrètes, pratiques et surtout adaptées puisque ne heurtant pas les traditions juridiques nationales qu’il aura réussi à identifier
Is the call to strengthen the protection of copyright in order to better fight copyright infringement, especially with the advent and the constant development of new technologies, justified? The results of the recent efforts on the international stage to achieve such a purpose, which led to the drawing up of the very controversial ACTA, show that the answer to this question cannot be simple nor immediate. Assessing the appropriateness as well as determining the need to strengthen this protection can only be made after a thorough review of legal solutions that already exist in the domestic law of two states, each of which ensures effective protection of copyright while adopting diametrically opposite approaches in this field namely, France and the United States. Once these two domestic laws have been compared, inequality in the level of protection appears, calling for improvements that go through an integration of legal institutions "coming from somewhere else". This integration that will have as a result the harmonization of these two laws while taking into account the national specificities, can be realized using the comparative law. The harmonization of national laws while respecting their differences is the work of international law as well, especially when the subject matter could only be addressed on an international even global scale. To understand the reasons for the persistence of differences between these two laws leading to this inequality, review of international instruments adopted in this field which are supposed to harmonize the protection of copyright, is essential. The results of this review are mixed due to the fact that national differences prevail, thus blocking the harmonization process. However, comparative law's primary role is to prepare the ground for a successful international harmonization, by providing concrete, practical and appropriate solutions given the fact that they do not conflict with national legal traditions that the comparative law has managed to identify

Com a análise histórica da chamada propriedade intelectual, em especial das patentes, copyright e direitos autorais, esta tese trata da crise do capitalismo contemporâneo, e analisa a tendência dissimulada de ascensão de Estados, que com o uso da tecnologia informática e o recrudescimento das legislações, se tornam cada vez mais autoritários e avançam sobre direitos e liberdades civis. Para isso é reconstituída a história dos computadores, da Internet, do Movimento do Software Livre, dos Partidos Piratas, do movimento do Software Livre no Brasil, das legislações de propriedade intelectual no mundo ocidental e da globalização do comércio e das finanças
Through the historical analysis of the \"intellectual property\", in particular patents, copyright and authors rights, this thesis deals with the crisis of contemporary capitalism, and analyzes the covert increasing trend of states, that with the use of computer technology and the intensification of laws, become increasingly authoritarian, eroding civil rights and liberties secured by populations long ago. To reach this objective the history of computers, the Internet, the Free Software Movement, the Pirate Parties, the Free Software movement in Brazil, the intellectual property laws in the Western world and the globalization of trade and finance are reconstituted

L’internationalisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle, initiée à la fin du XIXe siècle, a pris depuis la fin du XXe siècle une toute nouvelle tournure avec son inclusion dans le champ des disciplines commerciales multilatérales. La signature de l’accord ADPIC marque en effet l’émergence d’une véritable gouvernance mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle : l’ambition affichée par l’OMC est d’encadrer, substantiellement parlant, la marge de manœuvre des membres dans la mise en place de leurs politiques de protection. Bien qu’initié plus tardivement, la communautarisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle revêt désormais une portée considérable : outre une conciliation effective des régimes nationaux de protection avec les principes cardinaux du traité, d’importantes directives d’harmonisation ont été édictées, et des titres européens de protection ont même été créés dans certains secteurs. Notre étude a pour vocation de montrer comment la communautarisation, au-delà de son rôle traditionnel de source du droit, officie comme un indispensable vecteur de structuration de la position européenne vis-à-vis de la mondialisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Dans son versant ascendant tout d’abord – du local au global –, le vecteur communautarisation joue un rôle de mutualisation des objectifs à promouvoir sur la scène internationale. L’enjeu n’est autre que celui de façonner une gouvernance mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle qui corresponde au système d’intérêts et de valeurs de l’Union, conformément aux objectifs ambitieux assignés par le Traité. Ce processus de mutualisation n’a toutefois rien d’automatique : d’importantes contraintes institutionnelles – malgré plusieurs révisions du Traité et la progression graduelle de l’harmonisation en interne – contrarient l’émergence d’une véritable politique européenne extérieure intégrée. Mais c’est précisément à l’aune de ces contraintes qu’il convient d’apprécier la portée des accomplissements de l’UE, qui a su s’imposer comme un acteur central de la gouvernance mondiale du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Dans son versant descendant ensuite – du global au local –, le vecteur communautarisation s’accompagne d’une montée en puissance du juge de Luxembourg dans l’arbitrage des situations d’interactions normatives fréquentes et complexes entre le droit de l’Union et le droit international de la propriété intellectuelle. L’étude systématique de la résolution par la Cour de ces interactions normatives montre combien celle-ci s’attache à préserver l’autonomie de l’ordre juridique de l’Union, en ménageant une marge d’appréciation significative dans la mise en œuvre des obligations découlant de la mondialisation du droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Cette marge d’appréciation est mise à profit pour assurer la défense d’un modèle européen original en construction, tirant parti des flexibilités du cadre normatif mondial
The internationalization of IP Law, initiated at the end of the 19th century, has taken since the end of the 20th century a brand new twist with its inclusion in the field of multilateral trade disciplines. The signing of the TRIPS agreement marks the emergence of a global IP governance. Indeed, the ambition displayed by the WTO is to supervise the margin of maneuver of its Members in implementing their policies. Although Communitization of IP law started much later, it now has a considerable scope: national protection regimes have been conciliated with the cardinal principles of the Treaty, some important harmonization directives have been enacted, and various European titles of protection have even been created. Our study is designed to show how Communitization, beyond its traditional role of source of law, officiates as a necessary and efficient vector for structuring the European position towards the Globalization of IP Law. In its ascendant side first -- from Local to Global, the Communitization vector plays a role of merging the objectives to be promoted on the international scene. The issue at stake is to shape an IP global framework that corresponds to the system of interests and values of the EU, in accordance with the far-reaching objectives assigned by the Treaty. This merging process is, however, not automatic. In spite of several amendments to the Treaty and of the progress of internal harmonization, various institutional constraints thwart the emergence of a fully integrated external European policy in the field of IP. But it is precisely in light of these constraints that the scope of the achievements of the EU, which in now recognized as a central actor in the global IP governance, must be appreciated. In its down side then -- from Global to Local, the Communitization vector is accompanied by a rise of the European Court of Justice in arbitrating complex normative interactions between national, EU and International IP Laws. A systematic analysis of the resolution by the ECJ of these normative interactions reveals its determination to safeguard the autonomy of the EU legal order, by arranging for significant discretion in implementing international commitments. This margin of appreciation is used to defend an original European model under construction, taking advantage of the flexibilities of the global normative framework

La filosofia del diritto occidentale, mentre si è ampiamente preoccupata di indagare i fondamenti giustificativi dei diritti di proprietà intellettuale, raramente si è occupata di quelli del loro antagonista concettuale, ovvero del pubblico dominio. Lo scarso interesse manifestato dalla letteratura scientifica trova plausibile spiegazione nella concezione largamente diffusa che identifica il pubblico dominio nel concetto opposto e contrario di “proprietà”, finendo per cadere nell’equazione che considera una risorsa valorizzabile e meritevole di attenzione e tutela solo ciò che è appropriabile e tratta ciò che non lo è come scarto privo di intrinseco interesse. Oggi, a questa visione se ne è sostituita un’altra, che vede il pubblico dominio non più come res nullius, ma come res publici iuris, ovvero proprietà collettiva, comune, di tutti. Riconoscere che sul pubblico dominio insiste un interesse proprietario comune, equivale a dire che ciascun membro della collettività vanta un interesse a rivendicarne la comune proprietà, ovvero ad opporsi a tentativi di loro privata appropriazione. In relazione al diritto dei marchi tale interesse si contrappone al fenomeno di appropriazione indebita dei segni distintivi che devono considerarsi patrimonio comune, sottratto a qualsiasi diritto di privativa e liberamente disponibile per la collettività. Il capitolo introduttivo affronta i problemi definitori del pubblico dominio con riferimento alle principali privative industrialistiche, per poi concentrarsi, in particolare, sul rapporto con il diritto dei marchi. Esso dà conto delle principali iniziative mosse a livello internazionale per studiare le interazioni tra diritto dei marchi e pubblico dominio e si conclude con l’individuazione degli interessi collegati alla salvaguardia di un pubblico dominio ricco ed accessibile e delle minacce a tale interesse, ravvisabili nella tendenza all’espansione e al cumulo delle tutele. La durata tendenzialmente illimitata del diritto e la revocabilità dello status di pubblico dominio di un segno, caratterizzano il diritto di marchio rispetto alle altre privative industrialistiche per non avere una struttura di per sé favorevole e predisposta alla salvaguardia del dominio pubblico. Tale limite strutturale è però temperato dal legislatore mediante la previsione di limiti alla possibilità di acquisizione del diritto, nonché alla sua portata una volta acquisito. I capitoli II e V si occupano dei meccanismi che il diritto dei marchi prevede al fine di garantire spazi di pubblico dominio cui gli operatori del mercato possono liberamente attingere senza perciò interferire con l’area dei diritti di esclusiva dei titolari di marchio. Il capitolo II, in particolare, si occupa dei meccanismi di salvaguardia del pubblico dominio costituito dai segni esclusi dalla registrazione. I singoli impedimenti alla registrazione sono presi in esame evidenziandone la scarsa capacità escludente anche alla luce della tendenza all’estensione dell’oggetto della tutela di marchio, evidenziata attraverso una rassegna dei principali marchi-non convenzionali cui negli anni è stata concessa tutela. Tra tali meccanismi di salvaguardia del pubblico dominio spazio centrale è dedicato al principio dell’imperativo di disponibilità dei segni distintivi. Tale dottrina è stata elaborata dal formante giurisprudenziale tedesco sotto il nome di “Freihaltebedürfnis” (letteralmente “necessità di mantenere libero”) e fatta propria dalla dottrina anglosassone come “right to keep free” e sostiene, almeno nel suo impianto originale, la necessità di subordinare la registrazione di un marchio ad una previa valutazione di opportunità che il segno per cui si domanda tutela debba rimanere in pubblico dominio, ovvero liberamente appropriabile dalla collettività. Oggi è più che mai in dubbio quale sia il ruolo di questo principio all’interno del diritto comunitario dei marchi. Il capitolo III illustra l’iter della giurisprudenza comunitaria con riferimento alla questione del riconoscimento e della rilevanza dell’imperativo di disponibilità nel giudizio di registrazione. L’analisi evidenzierà come la Corte sia giunta a conclusioni differenti a seconda del diverso impedimento alla registrazione oggetto di interpretazione, con risultati considerati irragionevoli da larga parte della dottrina e non banali difficoltà e incertezze applicative per gli Uffici di registrazione. Nonostante ciò si evidenzierà l’emergere di una linea interpretativa comune alla maggior parte delle decisioni analizzate, tesa a riconoscere un ruolo effettivo all’imperativo di disponibilità nel giudizio di registrazione, seppur solo di carattere strumentale alla valutazione di distintività di un segno. Il capitolo IV illustra come il recente progetto di riforma di Direttiva e Regolamento comunitari non abbia colto l’opportunità di positivizzare tale principio, restando insensibile alla proposta originaria formulata dallo Studio del Max Planck Institut diMonaco di Baviera di inserire un riconoscimento espresso del suo operare all’interno del giudizio di registrazione. Conclusa la prima parte del lavoro dedicata alle interazioni tra il principio di disponibilità dei segni distintivi e la registrazione di marchio, nel capitolo V si entrerà nel terreno meno battuto dei riflessi che lo stesso principio dispiega nei confronti del giudizio di contraffazione. Dopo aver analizzato i diversi meccanismi previsti dal legislatore al fine di salvaguardare il pubblico dominio costituito dalle libere utilizzazioni di un segno registrato, si darà conto della loro scarsa capacità escludente e delle conseguenti minacce che la tutela assoluta prevista per i casi di contraffazione per doppia identità e quella aggravata del marchio che gode di rinomanza pongono alla salvaguardia dello spazio di pubblico dominio, specialmente con riguardo ai numerosi casi in cui il marchio altrui è utilizzato per scopi “atipici”, ovvero non chiaramente distintivi dell’attività imprenditoriale e dei beni o servizi dell’avente diritto. Con riferimento ad essi, l’interprete ha l’arduo compito di capire, di volta in volta, se sia maggiormente meritevole di tutela il titolare di marchio nel suo interesse di escludere i terzi dall’utilizzo del proprio segno, o i terzi stessi nell’interesse antagonista di fare uso del segno per finalità descrittive, espressive, decorative ecc. La giurisprudenza non ha offerto alcuna interpretazione univoca di questo bilanciamento, stentando a tracciare lo spartiacque tra usi leciti ed illeciti del marchio altrui. Molti di questi casi sono allora stati risolti dalla giurisprudenza ricorrendo, per sancirne la liceità, ad un principio di “necessità dell’uso” che porta nel giudizio di contraffazione gli stessi interessi di libera disponibilità presenti in sede di registrazione. Anche all’interno del giudizio di contraffazione, tuttavia, tale interesse resta sostanzialmente un oggetto misterioso per la Corte di Giustizia, che resta ancorata alla contraddizione che vede tale interesse confinato ad operare come principio interpretativo generale della normativa, privo però di qualsiasi implicazione concreta ed effettiva nel giudizio di registrazione e di contraffazione. In conclusione si suggerisce la necessità di sciogliere questo paradosso e si individua nella proposta del Max Planck un’occasione inspiegabilmente mancata per farlo.
Among the 45 Recommendations adopted under the WIPO Development Agenda, two indicate the preservation of public domain as a key task for firms, individuals and Member States. This study explores the notion of “public domain” in relation to trademark law, with particular reference to the challenging issue of how safeguarding it, avoiding misappropriation of signs which should remain usable by the public. Some studies have shown that legal instruments provided by trademark law to keep signs and certain forms of use free, risk not being appropriate counterbalances to prevent the misappropriation of public domain. A general exclusion from registration does not exist for many signs which are part of a communal heritage and even if a refusal for registration may be grounded on the lack of distinctiveness, this requirement may still be overcome, showing that the sign has acquired a “secondary meaning”. Furthermore, a look into the registers reveals that trademark right is often used as a vehicle to extend prior patent, design or copyrights, with great public domain’s concerns. At last, the space of public domain is endangered by the expanded protection of new types of marks and by the anti-dilution enhanced protection, which gave the registered trademark’s owner more general control over his sign, making it unavailable for socially and culturally valuable use, such as news reporting, criticism, review and parody. German case law was the first to address the issue of the safeguard of this room for free signs and uses, suggesting that trademark registration should be subject to a prior assessment of the opportunity that a sign remain public available (Freihaltebedürfnis). This interest raises from the observation of the negative impact that granting rights to certain types of trademark may have on market competition and led most countries to refrain from recognising trademark rights to descriptive and generic signs and functional shapes. Otherwise, by choosing these signs, right holders may acquire strategic competitive advantages on competitors whose marketing strategies and communication, deprived of the opportunity to use them, would result much less effective than that allowed to the trademark’s holder. This advantage has nothing to do with the essential function to guarantee the trade mark as an indication of origin and is therefore not justified in the light of the objectives underlying trade mark law. The ECJ, requested to preliminary ruling on whether this “need to keep free” should play any role in the European trademark law, answered contradictorily. Notwithstanding, courts still rely on public policy concerns in order to preclude or limit the trademark protection, such as the “color depletion” and the “functionality” doctrine used by U.S. Courts for granting protection to color or shape marks. This work suggests that public interest should still play a role as a key-factor in order to assess the distinctive character relevant both in registration and infringement proceedings and shares the view that wording should be added in the Trademark Directive and Regulation, that the assessment of distinctive character should take into account the “right to keep free”. This proposal becomes particularly actual in the light of the works in progress for reforming the European trademark legislation, which appear to have ignored the problem of striking the proper balance between trademark right and public domain.

TCS and WIPRO are two of the top Indian IT companies. The financial statement analysis of TCS and Wipro using various analytical methods such as Ratio analysis, Common size analysis, Comparative statement analysis, DuPont analysis, Statement of changes in working capital, and Sustainable growth rate analysis, revealed that both companies have shown overall positive growth in their financial performance over the years.

The thesis deals with the image of mediaval roman king and emperor and his power during the first half of the 11. century, as depicted in Wipo's work Gesta Chuonradi II. imperatoris. Conrad II., the first salian ruler is used as a model example of an ideal sovereign. The analysis of Conrad's image covers his reign as a king till his death, with peculiar focus on the forming of Conrad's empire, internal and foreign policy especially towards Italy and Burgundy. Furthemore the thesis concerns the discrepancy between reality and idealized behaviour of the ruler outlined in Wipo's work, as it was intended as an emperor's praise and as a guidebook for successor to the throne. Keywords: Wipo, Conrad II., ruler's image, Roman empire in 1. st half of 11. century.

The thesis is focused on a specific area of intellectual property field, namely the system of protection of Intellectual property whose current form has been shaped by the international organizations, especially by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). There has therefore been allocated extra space in the thesis to make the reader familiar with these respective organizations, especially with their organizational structure, decision-making procedures and activities. Important part of the thesis is analysis of current relations between WIPO and WTO, including its negative aspects. The thesis also contains section devoted to possible future development of the relations between WIPO and WTO.

This work considers international cooperation or harmonization in patent law and analyzes the two main international patent law governance institutions: the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). A welfarist approach is adopted, proposing that international patent law should improve global welfare, subject to assumptions that the preferences of the world population are heterogeneous, that governments try to maximize the welfare of their citizens, and that international legal organization faces collective action problems. Normatively desirable patent law harmonization reconciles strong reasons for preserving diversity (including the static and dynamic satisfaction of local preferences and adapting to unpredictable change) with strong reasons for cooperation (reducing duplication in patent prosecution, and reconciling imbalanced national externalities, incentives to innovation and costs). The last reason leads to a system of national treatment and minimum standards. The risks presented by the skewed nature of invention are addressed in the international patent system through a form of regional insurance. These reasons for cooperation present two linked but separable collective action problems, supporting the existence of two international institutions to govern patent cooperation. WIPO is best positioned to address duplication in patent prosecution. The WTO is best positioned to address imbalanced national externalities, incentives and costs. However, both the WIPO and the WTO are needed to provide a comprehensive international governance system. Questions about the WTO dispute resolution system, the TRIPs Council, and the WTO’s legitimacy are addressed by advocating a trade stakeholders’ model. Whether international patent law should be seen as a multilateral obligation or a nexus of bilateral obligations is explored. Given diverse national preferences and high uncertainty surrounding the welfare effects of specific patent policies, the process of harmonization is inevitably a political process. This political aspect directly connects the topic of patent law harmonization with the institutional analysis of WIPO and the WTO. The implementation of welfare-enhancing patent law cooperation is best guarded by a process with a wide range of political inputs and transparency. Ultimately, only good international governance can deliver on the potential of the international patent system to promote international innovation, economic growth and world-wide prosperity.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
106
The development of the Internet has brought drastic changes on how people spread and receive information. Hyperlink is the key to information dissemination on the Internet. Hyperlinks are portals leading to contents stored on the World Wide Web and enable Internet users to access these contents, such as texts, images, films and musical works. As the bedrock of knowledge economy, the copyright system is also affected by the developments of internet technologies. In 1996, in light of newly-developed communication technologies and content delivery models, the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) introduced a new right of “communication to the public” in Article 8, which grants authors a new exclusive right “authorizing any communication to the public of their works, by wire or wireless means, including the making available to the public may access these works from a place and at a time individually chosen by them.” Besides, the new right includes the notion of “making available to the public”, which means it does not require an actual communication of protected works to happen to establish an act of “communication to the public”, if the work is already available to the public, then the act to make it available is also covered by WCT Article 8. However, how to set boundaries for the right of communication to the public in the internet sphere raise controversies. The sharing of hyperlinks leading toward texts, images and musical works on the Internet, also known as hyperlinking, is a common practice on platforms such as social medias, personal websites, blogs. Unauthorized reproduction by uploading copyright-protected works on the Internet is already deemed as a straightforward infringement. However, is hyperlinking an act of “communication to the public” under WCT Article 8? The WCT provides a structure of “umbrella solution”, which allows its contracting parties to take elusive approaches to fulfill the treaty’s commitment of copyright protection, not limited to verbatim legislative transplant of WCT text. The approach to deal with hyperlink’s copyright issues differs from jurisdictions. The EU deemed hyperlinking as an act of communication to the public, but infringement liability only arises when the actor knows the illicit nature of the content that a hyperlink leads to. The U.S. and Japan generally reject the notion that hyperlinking constitutes direct copyright infringement, but hyperlinking can still possibly constitute secondary iinfringement. And the defendant’s subjective knowledge is generally a key threshold to establish a secondary infringement claim. Considering hyperlink’s unique position in the internet information dissemination process, any regulation or restriction on it should be deliberlately scruitinized. As hyperlinks may not only serve as a portal of information, sometimes links constitute speech itself. Any legal restrictions on the usage of hyperlinks shall take into account the possible negative effects on freedom of speech. In the copyright context, courts shall interprete copyright statutes in line with constitutional values to balance copyright holders’ legal interests and freedom of speech. In Taiwan, most courts do not treat hyperlinking as an act of “public transmission”, but also do not preclude hyperlinking from secondary criminal or civil infringement liabilities. The thesis assumes that a secondary-liability-centered regime of hyperlink’s copyright liability provides more freedom to ordinary internet users’ freedom to share information, and allows new internet-based services to thrive, as it also does not conflict with WCT’s “umbrella solution” approach.

Defence date: 26 February 2014
Examining Board: Professor Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, EUI (Supervisor) Professor Petros Mavroidis, EUI Professor Carlos Espósito, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid Professor Peter Hilpold, University of Innsbruck.
A core issue confronting the multilateral trading system down the years is the extent of its competence. How is the World Trade Organization (WTO) mandate shaped? Questions concerning the appropriate reach of the WTO and whether particular subjects should be covered – and if so in what institutional context - has been the subject of lively debate, and the difference of views on this matter have often influenced the pace of progress in multilateral negotiation rounds. The concerns voiced in the late 1970s and 1980s about whether trade in services had a place in GATT were followed by similar discussions on TRIPS, labor rights, environment, competition and so on. The examination of the WTO's scope usually has taken place in the context of trade linkages debates, reflecting either an effort to determine its optimal reach or an explicit attempt to bolster its legal and political capacity to promote norms that lack an institutional venue, or are sheltered by an institution that does not have an effective compliance mechanism. Given that the WTO is embedded in a broader international environment, some have proposed the use of WTO's enforcement power to promote objectives ostensibly remote from the multilateral trading system. Others have come up with terms such 'trade-relatedness' and 'specificity' for identifying which issues should be subject to negotiation within the WTO. The shape of the WTO agenda matters because it affects perceptions about the legitimacy and efficiency of the trading system. At the same time, the compartmentalized international legal order sets certain limits to WTO's capacity to integrate non-WTO obligations. Hence, claims for WTO accountability to, or accommodation of, non-WTO values must inevitably be measured against the presence of other international regimes whose goals should cohere, but, in reality, may conflict with free trade.

Depuis le début de son histoire, l’être humain cherche, pour de nombreuses raisons à s’associer et développer le milieu où il vit. Ces caractéristiques culminèrent dans les phénomènes de mondialisation et de révolution technologique responsables de la diminution des distances physiques et temporelles du monde contemporain. Ces facteurs ont stimulé les processus d’intégration régionaux, lesquels ont pour but le renforcement de ses adhérents face à la nouvelle réalité mondiale. Parmi ces processus, on note le Mercosur qui vise à la création d’un marché commun entre l’Argentine, le Brésil, le Paraguay et l’Uruguay. Fondé sur l’intergouvernabilité et avec une structure organisationnelle définie, ce bloc économique possède un cadre normatif en évolution, cherchant constamment la sécurité juridique dans divers secteurs. Quant à la protection des droits de propriété intellectuelle, on constate une ancienne préoccupation de la région sur le thème. Toutefois, le peu de normes existantes au sein du bloc confèrent des droits subjectifs minimaux et la plupart d’entre eux ne sont pas intégrés dans les législations nationales, lesquelles sont alignées sur les traités internationaux. Dans ses relations internationales, le Mercosur a une longue histoire de négociations avec l’Union Européenne et une histoire plus modeste avec le Canada, dans lesquelles l’attention portée aux droits de propriété intellectuelle n’est pas uniforme. De plus, sa participation dans les organismes internationaux responsables de ces droits est faible. Dans ce contexte, même avec un futur incertain le Mercosur présente de grandes expectatives. Toutefois, la préoccupation à protéger les droits de propriété intellectuelle est présente et réelle et commence à prendre de l’ampleur dans ses relations internes et externes.
Since the beginning of its history, the human being seeks, for many reasons, to join and develop the environment where he lives. These features, culminating in the phenomena of globalization and technological revolution, were responsible for the decrease in physical and temporal distances of the contemporary world. These factors have stimulated the regional integration processes, which are intended to strengthen its members to deal with a new global reality. Among these processes, we note the Mercosur aimed at creating a common market between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Based on its inter-governability and with a defined organizational structure, the economic bloc has an evolving normative framework, constantly seeking legal security in various sectors. As for the protection of intellectual property rights, there is an old concern of the region on the subject. However, few standards exist within the block granting minimum individual rights and most of them are not integrated in the national laws, which are aligned with international treaties. In its international relations, Mercosur has a long history of negotiations with the European Union and a timid story with Canada, in which attention to intellectual property rights is not uniform. Moreover, its participation in international organizations responsible for these rights is weak. Thus, even with an uncertain future Mercosur has great expectations. However, the concern to protect intellectual property rights is present and real and starts to grow in its internal and external relationships.

The thesis analyses selected aspects of domain-name law, mainly from the perspective of trade-mark law. It discusses the evolution of the domain-name system and how it operates as background to a more detailed discussion of the theoretical classification of domain names. The thesis then examines the interplay between trade marks and domain names, and the resolution of domain-name disputes resulting from the inherent tension between these two systems. The main principles of domain-name dispute resolution are identified by way of an analysis of the panel decisions handed down in terms of the international Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP) and the South African domain name dispute resolution regulations. This analysis always addresses, too, the extent to which national trade-mark law principles (with reference to the laws of South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America) apply, and the extent to which this is appropriate.
Private Law
LL.D.

The relationship between international regimes regulating intellectual property, traditional knowledge and biodiversity has received much attention in recent times. Of the many complex and controversial issues in contemporary international legal discourse on this matter, the protection of traditional knowledge (TK) stands out as a significant challenge. Choices abound in the search for modalities to regulate rights to use and control TK systems and their underlying biodiversity. In recent times, the protection of geographical indications (GIs) has emerged as an option for protecting TK. Despite the considerable enthusiasm over it, there is appreciable research dearth on how far and in what context GIs can be used as a protection model. Indeed, not only is the concept of GIs itself widely misunderstood. As well, analyses as to their applicability for protecting TK often reflect underlying cultural differences in the nature, scope and the jurisprudence regarding GIs across jurisdictions. This thesis examines the relationship between GIs and TK, focusing on the responsiveness of GIs to the needs and desires of indigenous peoples and local communities (ILCs). The thesis posits that the search for a model to protect TK should involve identifying different modalities, including those based on intellectual property, to fit to the nature and uses of TK in particular contexts. The analysis conceptualizes GIs as a form of IP that are structurally and functionally suitable to protect aspects of TK in traditional knowledge-based agricultural products (TKBAPs). Substantively, the thesis draws attention to the conceptual underpinnings of GIs as encompassing cultural and economic objectives in the protection of TK. As such, it is argued that stronger protection of GIs should be achieved by integrating the negotiations and discussion concerning GIs and TK at the international level. Further, the case is made for the determination of immediate challenges and long-term opportunities in choosing a legal means for protecting GIs at the national level. In this connection, the thesis suggests that the potential of GIs to meet national and local imperatives to protect TK be assessed, inter alia, based on their instrumentality for economic, biodiversity, cultural and food security objectives in protecting TKBAPs.

The thesis analyzes and compares the selected information systems on industrial property focused on trademarks and industrial designs. These are the selected systems of the Industrial Property Office of the Czech Republic, the Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market, the World Intellectual Property Organization, the US Patent and Trademark Office and the Swedish Patent and Registration Office. The work is divided into seven parts. The first part describes the terminology and the environment of trademarks and industrial designs. The second part lists the types of international classification, which is followed by the third part, which describes the international treaties and agreements. The fourth part presents selected institutions and their analyzed systems. The fifth part deals with the analysis and the sixth section summarizes trends in the disclosure of trade marks and industrial designs. The last seventh part of the work shows an impact of the protection of trademarks and industrial designs in the business. The analysis showed that the national databases of the Industrial Property Office of the Czech Republic were top rated. The worst evaluation acquired databases of the US Patent and Trademark Office. Key words Industrial property, trademark, industrial design, information system,...