Academic literature on the topic 'Women Chinese students'

The purpose of this study was to describe and explain American undergraduate students’ social experiences interacting with non-native English-speaking Chinese international students during conversational practices at an American university. This study used an explanatory (holistic) multiple case study design (Yin, 2003) using in-depth, semistructured interviews grounded in the social exchange theory. The participants were seven American students (three men and four women) who served as conversation partners of Chinese international exchange students during each fall semester. Three major interrelated and complex themes emerged from the data. They were (a) developing social reward relationships, (b) proving the social norm information during the conversational partnerships, and (c) employing/utilizing strategies for developing trust relationships. The results of this study can be utilized to encourage faculty, global education office staff, and all students to respect, value, and embrace the languages and cultures of Chinese international students. This contribution can prompt a greater appreciation for diversity which leads to meaningful academic, athletic, and social experiences for all students at American college and university.

This essay uses a 1915 crisis at the American Presbyterian Hackett Medical College for Women in Guangzhou, China as a lens to explore the level of control Chinese women, who were known as “assistants,” exercised at the school. Official literature of the Hackett portrays the American woman missionary physician Dr. Mary Fulton as controlling the college, but in fact its Chinese women graduates largely ran the institution for some years before 1915. Challenging images of American women missionary physicians either as heroines or imperialists, this article describes instead how Chinese women shaped the institution. Placing the Hackett into the broader context of American Presbyterian medical education for Chinese women since 1879, it argues that rather than only interpreting and adapting missionary ideologies, many of the Chinese women medical students in Guangzhou brought their own conceptions of women practicing medicine. In the case of medical education for women in Guangzhou before 1915, American missionaries were partially responding to Chinese traditions and demands. Ultimately, this essay presents a more complex view of cultural transfer in the women’s foreign mission movement of this period.

This study examined the differences in the measures of perception of body shape and body affect among Chinese and American college male and female students. 289 Chinese students in China and 180 American students in the United States voluntarily completed the Body-image Questionnaire, comprised of four categories: (a) anthropometric data, (b) self-perception of body shape, (c) body affect, and (d) desired body shape. American students were significantly more likely than Chinese students to perceive their body shapes as being larger, but both Chinese and American students tended to perceive their body shapes accurately. For body affect, both Chinese and American female students who perceived themselves as thin had positive feelings about their bodies, while both groups of female students who perceived themselves as heavy had negative feelings about their bodies. American women were more likely than Chinese women to have negative feelings about their bodies. American students also placed high value on muscular firmness as part of their ideal female body shape, while Chinese students added plumpness as another component for judging ideal female body shape. Both Chinese and American men valued physical strength as a major component for body satisfaction.

This research concerned the thinking styles of 150 Chinese and American graduate students, using the Inquiry Mode Questionnaire by Harrison and Bramson. The analysis showed the Chinese students scored as more pragmatic than the American group, and the Chinese men and American women scored as more idealistic than the Chinese women and American men. The study also indicated that students of social science or humanities and of natural science scored as more idealistic than those in engineering. Students of natural science and engineering scored as more analytical than those from social science or humanities, and engineering students scored as more realistic than those of the other majors. This group of students preferred the analytical thinking style most and the synthesist style least.

Numerous Chinese studies point out that Chinese youth are transforming the meaning of filial piety, China's highly esteemed moral code used to structure intergenerational relationships. We wanted to understand the extent to which college educated women are redefining what it means to be a filial woman in contemporary Chinese society. To this end, we set up a research design that probed whether men and women continue to think becoming parents is an essential attribute of life satisfaction using a pen-and-paper survey with college students in Shanghai and Hohhot, Inner Mongolia. A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) on Likert-scaled questions resulted in two factors: Customary Ideology and Autonomous Self. As anticipated, students who reported their intent to parent were more likely to agree with items in Customary Ideology, whilst students who reported not intending to have children or were uncertain were more likely to agree with items in Autonomous Self. Most telling, an overwhelming number of respondents from each university reported agreement with the statement, "Having children is a personal choice" (97.6% at Fudan University; 76.4% at Inner Mongolia University). We discuss the implications of these findings as the singleton generations renegotiate expectations of these intergenerational bonds.

This study assessed the extent to which social sexism affects Chinese women's perception and evaluation of other women's performance. A sample of 100 college women was selected in a top university in Beijing, China, and was asked to read six scholastic essays and then evaluate the quality of the essays and competence of the authors. Male and female names were randomly assigned as authors of the essays, and the respondents were blind to the arrangement. Results showed that the essays assumed to be written by male authors did not receive higher scores than those assumed to be written by female authors on quality or competence items. Sexism is not marked among these highly educated young women.

In this study, 144 Chinese unmarried female students enrolled in South China Normal University in Guangzhou, China, agreed more than 70 unmarried male students that household chores and tasks should be equally shared between marital partners and believed women were entitled to careers as equal to those of men. Women expressed significantly higher acceptance than the men for using professional counseling services. These women were less accepting of premarital sexual relationships and extramarital affairs than the men.

The #MeToo movement has brought the issue of sexual harassment to U.S. college campuses. Most scholarly work in this area focuses on White American women with little information on international student experiences. Because sexual harassment is considered hush-hush (shi) and taboo, many Chinese international students may not question harassment behaviors they experience. For many Chinese women attending a U.S. university, their first public discussion may occur during student orientation. Thus, students come to college campuses with varying levels of awareness of sexual harassment. Given the growing number of Chinese international students, the purpose of this article is to provide an overview of their experiences and perceptions of sexual harassment. The article provides recommendations for university personnel working with international students.

Eating disorders affect individuals from most ethnic backgrounds. Research suggests that White females experience the greatest levels of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction. Studies examining Chinese females found they experienced similar levels of disordered eating but less body dissatisfaction to White females. This study was conducted to examine the prevalence of eating disorder symptomatology in Chinese and Other ethnicities in New Zealand. A sample of female university students at the University of Waikato completed questionnaires (N=116) to assess disordered eating and body dissatisfaction. In contrast to previous findings Chinese females actually exhibited more disordered eating behaviours and body dissatisfaction attitudes than did other females living in New Zealand. Also, fear of weight gain was more likely to be exhibited by Chinese females than other females. Pressure to be thin came from similar sources for both Chinese and other female students. While, length of time living in New Zealand did not appear to alter Chinese females' levels of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction. However in keeping with previous research, the present findings did suggest that the data from this study support the suggestion that the EAT-26 may not be an appropriate measure for Chinese females when assessing eating disorders. These findings have important implications for future research on ethnicities and eating disorders, and for clinicians working with Chinese female clients.

The management literature in gender issues argues that in spite of the progress made in the last few decades, women still face difficulties in being accepted and recognised as managers because the manager’s role has been perceived as masculine. Gender stereotypes, hence, continue to become a barrier to women’s access to top management position. This study examines the perceptions of the relationship between sex role stereotypes and the perceived characteristics necessary for managerial success among Chinese students in New Zealand. The study sample consisted of 94 male Chinese students and 119 female Chinese students studying in New Zealand. In order to allow for cross-cultural comparisons, this study used a direct replication the Schein Descriptive Index (SDI) from previous study (Schein & Mueller, 1992). The male and female perceptions on the relationship between sex role stereotypes and characteristics were analysed separately. The results revealed that both male and female Chinese students in New Zealand perceive that successful middle managers possess characteristics, attitudes and temperaments more commonly ascribed to men than to women in general. In addition, the results were compared with previous studies conducted in China and Japan, New Zealand, America, Britain, Canada, and Germany. Our findings conclude that Asian people are worse than Western people in respect to managerial sex role stereotyping, particularly, Chinese males who show a very strong degree of managerial gender stereotyping. Multiple discriminant analysis was used to discriminate the relationship between men, women and middle managers on 92 items from the survey questionnaire. The analysis resulted in two separate canonical functions which distinguished between three groups women, men and managers).

Thesis advisor: Janet E. Helms
As the first generation born after China introduced its "one-child policy," Chinese female students in the United States belong to a special population that is under the dual pressures of their parents' expectations to succeed and the conflicting traditional Chinese stereotypes of women as obedient to men, dependent, and home orientated. Previous research on Chinese female students' acculturative experiences indicates that these women face unique challenges in redefining their gender roles. However, no studies have explored whether womanist and acculturative processes are related to this psychological transition. The current study explored womanist identity and acculturation attitudes as processes influencing Chinese women's negotiations of their gender roles and redefinitions of themselves as women while living in the United States. Chinese female international students (N=192), enrolled in colleges or universities in the US, completed a demographic questionnaire; the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale (Helms, 1990), which assessed their manner of coping with traditional role expectations; and, the Acculturation Scale for Asian International Students (Gu, 2008), which measured acculturation attitudes. Their gender-role traits and stereotypical attitudes toward American women were examined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) (Bem, 1974) and Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS) (Spence, Helmrich, & Stapp, 1978). Canonical correlation analyses were used to investigate relationships among (a) womanist identity and acculturation attitudes, (b) womanist identity and gender-roles, and (c) acculturation attitudes and gender roles. Two identity-acculturation patterns, three identity-gender role patterns, and two acculturation-gender role patterns were identified. When the Chinese women were self-defining their gender-role identity, they were participating in U.S. culture and integrating traditional and non-traditional gender-role traits and attitudes. Traditional womanist attitudes were associated with increased levels of rejecting the U.S. culture, traditional gender roles, and perceived dissimilarities between themselves and U.S. women. The current study is the first to investigate gender-role and acculturation developmental issues of "One-Child" women from a psychological perspective. Obtained results suggest that their adaptive processes are more complex than anticipated. Methodological limitations of the study are discussed
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2015
Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education
Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology

Tam, Kok-wing = 從質性研究探討中國香港女性大學生運動習慣的決定因素 / 譚玨穎.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2004.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 102-116).
Text in English; abstracts in English and Chinese.
Tam, Kok-wing = Cong zhi xing yan jiu tan tao Zhongguo Xianggang nü xing da xue sheng yun dong xi guan de jue ding yin su / Tan Jueying.
Abstract --- p.i
Acknowledgement --- p.iii
Table of Contents --- p.iv
List of Tables --- p.vii
List of Figures --- p.viii
Chapter CHAPTER ONE
Introduction --- p.1
Background --- p.1
Purpose of Study --- p.6
Operational Definition of Terms --- p.6
Assumptions --- p.7
Delimitations --- p.8
Limitations --- p.8
Significance of the Study --- p.8
Chapter CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature --- p.10
Psychological Aspects of Physical Activity --- p.10
Theoretical Background --- p.10
Reduction of Stress and Depression --- p.11
Enhancement of Mood --- p.13
Improvement in Self Concept --- p.14
Higher Quality of Life --- p.15
Reasons for Exercise Participation --- p.16
Exercise Determinants --- p.17
Research Related to the Determinants of Physical Activity --- p.18
Personal Characteristics --- p.18
Psychological and Behavioural Determinants --- p.19
Environmental Determinants - Social factors --- p.21
Environmental Determinants - Physical factors --- p.22
Physical Activity Characteristics --- p.23
Exercise Facilitators --- p.24
Exercise Barriers --- p.24
Gender --- p.25
Decline of Young Adult Exercise Pattern --- p.27
The Transtheoretical Model --- p.28
Theoretical Background --- p.28
The Five Stages of Change --- p.31
Precontemplation Stage - --- p.31
Contemplation Stage --- p.31
Preparation Stage --- p.31
Action Stage --- p.32
Maintenance Stage --- p.32
Research related to the Transtheoretical Model and physical activity --- p.33
Summary --- p.35
Chapter CHAPTER THREE
Method --- p.36
Participants --- p.36
Survey sample --- p.36
Interview sample --- p.37
Procedures --- p.37
Surveying --- p.37
In-depth interviewing process --- p.38
Instrumentation --- p.39
Questionnaire for the Survey Sample (818 students) --- p.39
Exercise Stage Assessment --- p.39
Interview guide for the interview sub-sample --- p.40
Data Analysis --- p.42
Questionnaire Analysis --- p.42
Data analysis for the interview --- p.42
Chapter CHAPTER FOUR
Results --- p.46
The General Results from Exercise Stage Assessment --- p.46
Background of the 15 Interviewees --- p.47
Reasons for sedentary behaviour of the non-exercisers --- p.50
Personal Characteristics --- p.52
Psychological and Behavioural Determinants --- p.53
Exercise Determinants - Physical aspects --- p.55
Exercise Determinants - Social aspects --- p.58
Physical Activity Characteristics --- p.60
Reasons for the non-exercisers to change their sedentary behaviour- --- p.61
Personal Characteristics --- p.62
Psychological and Behavioural Determinants --- p.63
Exercise Determinants - Physical aspects --- p.65
Exercise Determinants - Social aspects --- p.66
Physical Activity Characteristics --- p.67
Reasons for the exercisers to be active --- p.67
Personal Characteristics --- p.68
Psychological and Behavioural Determinants --- p.70
Exercise Determinants - Physical aspects --- p.72
Exercise Determinants - Social aspects --- p.72
Physical Activity Characteristics --- p.74
Reasons for the exercisers to terminate their active behaviour --- p.75
Personal Characteristics --- p.76
Psychological and Behavioural Determinants --- p.76
Exercise Determinants - Physical aspects --- p.78
Exercise Determinants - Social aspects --- p.81
Chapter CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion --- p.83
Exercise Determinants in Personal Characteristics --- p.85
Exercise Determinants in Psychological and Behavioural Dimensions --- p.89
Exercise Determinants in Environmental - Physical aspects --- p.91
Exercise Determinants in Environmental - Social aspects --- p.95
Exercise Determinants in Physical Activity Characteristics --- p.96
Summary and Conclusion --- p.97
Recommendations --- p.100
References --- p.102
Appendix A --- p.117
Appendix B --- p.119
Appendix C --- p.120
Appendix D --- p.122
Appendix E --- p.124
Appendix F --- p.126
Appendix G --- p.128
Appendix H --- p.130
Appendix I --- p.131
Appendix J --- p.133
Appendix K --- p.135

Tang, Mun Yu.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 473-493).
Abstracts in English and Chinese; appendices in Chinese.
Abstract --- p.i
摘要 --- p.iii
Acknowledgments --- p.iv
Table of Contents --- p.vi
List of Figures and Tables --- p.xiii
Chapter Chapter One --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter Chapter Two --- Literature Review on Adolescent Development with Particular Reference to Poor Adolescents --- p.11
Chapter 2.1 --- Theories of adolescent development --- p.11
Chapter 2.1.1 --- Micro theories --- p.11
Chapter 2.1.2 --- Macro theories --- p.15
Chapter 2.1.3 --- Ecological model --- p.17
Chapter 2.1.3.1 --- Introduction --- p.17
Chapter 2.1.3.2 --- Application to understand the development of adolescents experiencing adversity ´ؤ Resilience Model --- p.18
Chapter 2.1.3.2.1 --- Definitions of resilience with specific to children and adolescents --- p.18
Chapter 2.1.3.2.2 --- Models of resilience --- p.20
Chapter 2.1.4 --- Summary --- p.22
Chapter 2.2 --- Existing findings on the development of adolescents growing up in poor families --- p.22
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Poor adolescents perceive poverty --- p.23
Chapter 2.2.1.1 --- Conceptualization of beliefs about causes of poverty --- p.23
Chapter 2.2.1.2 --- Review of previous studies --- p.29
Chapter 2.2.1.3 --- Limitations --- p.34
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Development of adolescents experiencing poverty --- p.38
Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Development of poor adolescents in their present lives --- p.38
Chapter 2.2.2.1.1 --- Psychological well-being and magnitude of having behavioral problems --- p.38
Chapter 2.2.2.1.2 --- Educational outcomes --- p.45
Chapter 2.2.2.1.3 --- Limitations --- p.52
Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Perceptions of future lives --- p.56
Chapter 2.2.2.2.1 --- Review of previous studies --- p.56
Chapter 2.2.2.2.2 --- Limitations --- p.64
Chapter 2.3 --- Directions for future research --- p.69
Chapter Chapter Three --- Research Questions and Research Design --- p.77
Chapter 3.1 --- Research questions --- p.77
Chapter 3.2 --- Proposal for a qualitative research approach --- p.79
Chapter 3.3 --- Research design --- p.81
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Sample --- p.87
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Data collection --- p.92
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Data analysis --- p.95
Chapter 3.3.3.1 --- Reliability of the findings --- p.99
Chapter 3.3.3.2 --- Validity of the findings --- p.100
Chapter Chapter Four --- Findings --- p.106
Chapter 4.1 --- Perceived economic disadvantage experienced by their families --- p.107
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Beliefs about the causes of their families in need for financial support from the Government --- p.108
Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Individualistic causes --- p.108
Chapter 4.1.1.1.1 --- Causes in relation to parents --- p.108
Chapter 4.1.1.1.2 --- Causes in relation to mother --- p.109
Chapter 4.1.1.1.3 --- Causes in relation to father --- p.110
Chapter 4.1.1.1.4 --- Causes in relation to children --- p.111
Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Societal causes --- p.115
Chapter 4.1.1.3 --- Fatalistic causes --- p.117
Chapter 4.1.1.4 --- Summary --- p.119
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Perceptions of being a CSSA recipient --- p.119
Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- Personal views --- p.120
Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- Perception shaped by mother --- p.125
Chapter 4.1.2.3 --- Perceptions related to peers --- p.126
Chapter 4.1.2.3.1 --- Perceptions related to peers' financial circumstances --- p.126
Chapter 4.1.2.3.2 --- Perceptions related to peers' reactions towards their financial backgrounds --- p.127
Chapter 4.1.2.3.3 --- Perceptions related to the level of closeness with peers --- p.129
Chapter 4.1.2.4 --- Perceptions related to the views of general public --- p.129
Chapter 4.1.2.4.1 --- Views of general public influenced by the Government --- p.130
Chapter 4.1.2.4.2 --- Views of general public influenced by the media --- p.130
Chapter 4.1.2.4.3 --- Views of general public influenced by with or without personal experiences of receiving CSSA or personal contacts with CSSA recipients --- p.133
Chapter 4.1.2.4.4 --- Views of general public influenced by the dominant societal ideologies --- p.134
Chapter 4.1.2.5 --- Perceptions related to CSSA claim procedures --- p.138
Chapter 4.1.2.6 --- Perceptions related to special policy for CSSA recipients --- p.139
Chapter 4.1.2.7 --- Perceptions related to attitudes of staff in CSSA unit --- p.140
Chapter 4.1.2.8 --- Summary --- p.141
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Perceived quality of life under the CSSA and the related factors --- p.142
Chapter 4.1.3.1 --- Perceived quality of life under the CSSA --- p.143
Chapter 4.1.3.1.1 --- Primary school --- p.143
Chapter 4.1.3.1.2 --- Secondary school --- p.145
Chapter 4.1.3.1.3 --- University --- p.146
Chapter 4.1.3.2 --- Perceived quality of life under the CSSA in relation to mothers' financial management --- p.150
Chapter 4.1.3.2.1 --- Ways of monitoring family finance --- p.150
Chapter 4.1.3.2.2 --- Ways of fulfilling unmet needs --- p.151
Chapter 4.1.3.3 --- Perceived quality of life under the CSSA in relation to self financial management --- p.153
Chapter 4.1.3.3.1 --- Being self-disciplined of spending money --- p.153
Chapter 4.1.3.3.2 --- Saving money --- p.155
Chapter 4.1.3.3.3 --- Doing part-time jobs and summer jobs --- p.157
Chapter 4.1.3.4 --- Perceived quality of life under the CSSA in relation to other sources of financial support --- p.161
Chapter 4.1.3.4.1 --- Financial support from relatives --- p.161
Chapter 4.1.3.4.2 --- Financial support from non-relatives --- p.163
Chapter 4.1.3.5 --- Summary --- p.166
Chapter 4.1.4 --- Comments on the staff in the CSSA unit --- p.166
Chapter 4.1.4.1 --- Positive comments --- p.166
Chapter 4.1.4.1.1 --- Attitudes --- p.167
Chapter 4.1.4.1.2 --- Performance --- p.167
Chapter 4.1.4.2 --- Negative comments --- p.169
Chapter 4.1.4.2.1 --- Attitudes (from personal experiences) --- p.169
Chapter 4.1.4.2.2 --- Attitudes (from mothers' experiences) --- p.171
Chapter 4.1.4.2.3 --- Performance --- p.172
Chapter 4.1.4.3 --- Summary --- p.176
Chapter 4.1.5 --- Comments on the CSSA scheme --- p.177
Chapter 4.1.5.1 --- Positive comments --- p.177
Chapter 4.1.5.1.1 --- Nature of the CSSA scheme --- p.177
Chapter 4.1.5.1.2 --- Strict policy for preventing abuse of the scheme --- p.179
Chapter 4.1.5.2 --- Negative comments --- p.180
Chapter 4.1.5.2.1 --- Amount of support in the CSSA scheme --- p.180
Chapter 4.1.5.2.2 --- Policy on the CSSA scheme --- p.183
Chapter 4.1.5.2.3 --- Claim procedures in the CSSA scheme --- p.187
Chapter 4.1.5.3 --- Summary --- p.191
Chapter 4.1.6 --- Circumstances of women in economic disadvantaged and female-headed families --- p.192
Chapter 4.1.6.1 --- Struggles on financial adversity --- p.192
Chapter 4.1.6.2 --- Consequences of receiving financial support from the Government --- p.194
Chapter 4.1.6.2.1 --- Influences on self-image --- p.194
Chapter 4.1.6.2.2 --- Influences on psychological state --- p.195
Chapter 4.1.6.3 --- Pressure of taking up the parental roles --- p.197
Chapter 4.1.6.4 --- Summary --- p.199
Chapter 4.1.7 --- Recommendations for improvement in the CSSA service --- p.200
Chapter 4.1.7.1 --- Staff training --- p.200
Chapter 4.1.7.2 --- Quality of the service --- p.201
Chapter 4.1.7.3 --- Other recommendations --- p.204
Chapter 4.1.7.4 --- Summary --- p.195
Chapter 4.1.8 --- Recommendations for improvement the policy in the CSSA scheme --- p.207
Chapter 4.1.8.1 --- Subvention policy --- p.207
Chapter 4.1.8.1.1 --- Subvention for students --- p.207
Chapter 4.1.8.1.2 --- Subvention for households --- p.209
Chapter 4.1.8.1.3 --- "Subvention for children, elderly, disabled and chronic illness patients" --- p.211
Chapter 4.1.8.2 --- Claim procedures --- p.214
Chapter 4.1.8.3 --- Employment-related policy --- p.216
Chapter 4.1.8.3.1 --- Employment-related policy for single parents --- p.216
Chapter 4.1.8.3.2 --- Employment-related policy for general able-bodied CSSA recipients --- p.219
Chapter 4.1.8.4 --- Other recommendations --- p.222
Chapter 4.1.8.5 --- Summary --- p.224
Chapter 4.1.9 --- Service gaps for economic disadvantaged and single-parent families --- p.225
Chapter 4.1.9.1 --- Services for CSSA families --- p.225
Chapter 4.1.9.1.1 --- Emotional support services --- p.225
Chapter 4.1.9.1.2 --- Household support services --- p.227
Chapter 4.1.9.2 --- Services for women in economic disadvantage and marital disruption --- p.229
Chapter 4.1.9.2.1 --- Employment-related support services --- p.229
Chapter 4.1.9.2.2 --- Counseling services --- p.230
Chapter 4.1.9.3 --- Services for the single-parent families --- p.232
Chapter 4.1.9.3.1 --- Emotional support services --- p.232
Chapter 4.1.9.3.2 --- Public education --- p.233
Chapter 4.1.9.4 --- Summary --- p.234
Chapter 4.1.10 --- Overall summary of Section 4.1 --- p.235
Chapter 4.2 --- Perceived past lives --- p.237
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Area 1: Perceived quality of life before receiving the CSSA --- p.237
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Area 2: Reactions towards economic disadvantage --- p.241
Chapter 4.2.2.1 --- Feelings about living under the CSSA --- p.241
Chapter 4.2.2.2 --- Perceived influences of economic disadvantage in their past lives --- p.246
Chapter 4.2.2.2.1 --- Experienced different from those of their peers --- p.246
Chapter 4.2.2.2.2 --- Influenced on their study plans --- p.248
Chapter 4.2.2.3 --- Summary --- p.253
Chapter 4.2.3 --- Area 3: Views on mother's employment status --- p.253
Chapter 4.2.4 --- Area 4: Perceptions of one's roles in the family --- p.257
Chapter 4.2.5 --- Area 5: Perceived source of influences on one's development --- p.265
Chapter 4.2.5.1 --- Aspect 1: Family backgrounds --- p.266
Chapter 4.2.5.1.1 --- Experiences of economic disadvantage --- p.266
Chapter 4.2.5.1.2 --- Single-parent family Other people --- p.278
Chapter 4.2.5.1.3 --- Summary --- p.289
Chapter 4.2.5.2 --- Aspect 2: Significant others --- p.290
Chapter 4.2.5.2.1 --- Mother --- p.290
Chapter 4.2.5.2.2 --- Other people --- p.298
Chapter 4.2.5.2.3 --- Summary --- p.304
Chapter 4.2.5.3 --- Aspect 3: Beliefs --- p.304
Chapter 4.2.5.4 --- Summary --- p.306
Chapter 4.2.6 --- Overall summary of Section 4.2 --- p.307
Chapter 4.3 --- Perceived experiences of their present lives --- p.309
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Area 1: Meanings of becoming a university student --- p.309
Chapter 4.3.1.1 --- Familial meanings --- p.309
Chapter 4.3.1.2 --- Personal meanings --- p.313
Chapter 4.3.1.3 --- Summary --- p.326
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Area 2: Perceived differences with the peers in university --- p.326
Chapter 4.3.3 --- Area 3: Economic circumstances --- p.333
Chapter 4.3.3.1 --- Personal financial circumstances --- p.334
Chapter 4.3.3.2 --- Perceived meanings of with or without financial support from the Government to their families --- p.347
Chapter 4.3.3.3 --- Summary --- p.350
Chapter 4.3.4 --- Area 4: Perceptions of one's roles in the family --- p.351
Chapter 4.3.5 --- Overall summary of Section 4.3 --- p.357
Chapter 4.4 --- Perceived future lives --- p.359
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Expected lives after graduation and the related contributory factors --- p.359
Chapter 4.4.1.1 --- Area 1: Work --- p.359
Chapter 4.4.1.2 --- Area 2: Life style --- p.369
Chapter 4.4.1.3 --- Area 3: Economic circumstances --- p.372
Chapter 4.4.1.4 --- Area 4: Marriage --- p.380
Chapter 4.4.1.5 --- Area 5: Spouse --- p.383
Chapter 4.4.1.6 --- Area 6: Quality of relationship in future family --- p.389
Chapter 4.4.1.6.1 --- Marital relationship --- p.389
Chapter 4.4.1.6.2 --- Parent-child relationship --- p.392
Chapter 4.4.1.7 --- Summary --- p.396
Chapter 4.4.2 --- Feelings about their future lives --- p.397
Chapter 4.4.3 --- Overall summary of Section 4.4 --- p.403
Chapter 4.5 --- Summary of the findings and findings deserving special attention --- p.404
Chapter Chapter 5 --- Discussion and Recommendation --- p.423
Chapter 5.1 --- Discussion of nine aspects of findings --- p.423
Chapter 5.1.1 --- Aspect 1 -- Role of education in life --- p.423
Chapter 5.1.2 --- Aspect 2 -- Absence of father as the main cause of economic hardship --- p.425
Chapter 5.1.3 --- "Aspect 3 -- Being a ""good child""" --- p.427
Chapter 5.1.4 --- Aspect 4 -- Difficult growth trajectory --- p.430
Chapter 5.1.5 --- Aspect 5 -- Poverty: Blessing in disguise --- p.434
Chapter 5.1.6 --- Aspect 6 -- Family of origin's influence on expectations of future life --- p.437
Chapter 5.1.7 --- Aspect 7 -- Five protective factors in development --- p.440
Chapter 5.1.8 --- Aspect 8 -- Mothers experiencing economic disadvantage: Long-suffering women guarding their children --- p.443
Chapter 5.1.9 --- Aspect 9 -- Balanced view of the CSSA scheme --- p.446
Chapter 5.1.10 --- Summary --- p.452
Chapter 5.2 --- Theoretical contributions and implications of the present findings --- p.455
Chapter 5.3 --- Practical implications and recommendations of the present findings --- p.459
Chapter 5.4 --- Limitations of this study --- p.461
Chapter Chapter Six --- Conclusion --- p.463
Chapter 6.1 --- Summary of findings --- p.463
Chapter 6.2 --- Evaluation of the quality of this qualitative study --- p.468
Chapter 6.3 --- Directions for further study --- p.470
Bibliography --- p.473
Appendix I: Written Consent Form --- p.494
Appendix II: Interview Guide --- p.495

by Li Sing-yuen.
Includes questionaire in Chinese.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1994.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-86).
List of Tables --- p.v
List of Appendices --- p.vi
Introduction --- p.1
Method --- p.32
Results --- p.40
Discussion --- p.62
References --- p.80
Appendices --- p.87

Founded in 1875 originally as the Jane Bohlen School for Girls in Wuchang, Hubei Province, St. Hilda’s would become known as a Christian “oasis” in Central China. Behind the school’s compound walls, St. Hilda’s created a space where new gender roles and expectations for Christian women could be nurtured through the fusion of the social gospel with the dramatic historical events of the period. St. Hilda’s illuminates the liberating qualities of a faith-based education, the impact of a complex and communal adaptation of Christianity, and the power of interpersonal encounter for both teachers and students.

This chapter presents a cross-cultural study of gender, religion, and culture, using the history of Chinese women and the Anglican Church in China as a case study. Instead of focusing on mission history as previous studies usually have done, it treats the missionary movement as a part of the globalizing modernity, which affected both Western and Chinese societies. The attention shifts from missionaries to local women’s agencies, introducing figures such as Mrs. Zhang Heling, Huang Su’e, and female students in mission schools. It uses a wider comparative frame (beyond China and the West) to contrast women’s work by the Church Missionary Society in China, Iran, India, and Uganda. It also places the ordination for the first woman in the Anglican Communion—Rev. Li Tim Oi—in the development of postcolonial awareness of the church.

This chapter takes up the rising tide of internationalism in the United States during the 1910s and examines how a new generation of New Women, who entertained the international spirit buoyed by burgeoning Wilsonian liberal internationalism, perceived the United States' place in the world and their own role in China. Within U.S. borders, internationalism was first conceived as a way to consolidate its increasingly culturally diverse populace under the banner of universal democracy. It was in countries such as China that this notion of the universality of U.S. ideals and values was put to the test. In China, the new generation of internationally minded New Women missionaries found a pleasing reality—the existence of a favorable image of the United States—and became even more convinced of the validity of their internationalism. The favorable image of the United States also meant that American New Women missionaries could become desirable role models for Chinese women: at their institutions, Chinese xin nüxing students earnestly responded to the expectation of their teachers, and these young Chinese women evolved into genuine New Women in line with the principle put forth by American New Women missionaries.

In various ways, the wide range of schools in Hong Kong – some secular, others run by a variety of religious organizations - represented a new frontier to girl students, and the cultural exchanges that took place there were multidimensional. Apart from contact with new knowledge through book learning, Chinese girls gained access to other unfamiliar activities such as choral singing, playing musical instruments, sports, and girl guiding. Equally importantly, in some schools girls encountered and mingled with others from very different ethnic, social and economic backgrounds, forming an important socializing experience. The first generation of ‘accomplished women’ from such schools contributed to the redefining of women’s space in prewar Hong Kong. The turbulent years of the 1920s and 1930s also provided unprecedented opportunities for them to exercise their language skills in networking and organization of charity and relief work. This chapter argues that for those women who excelled in public service it was not only the academic training but the all-round education in a multicultural setting that equipped them with discipline and determination, and a vision to build international connections in their service for the common good.

This chapter explores the development of the department of physics at Yenching University, an American-funded missionary institution in Beijing, China during the Republican period. It shows how the department evolved from a primitive premedical teaching program to a major center of physics education and research. It also reveals the significant role of the Rockefeller Foundation in this development, partly as the sponsor of the Premedical School of Peking Union Medical College. Founded in 1917, the Premedical School shared with Yenching’s science departments its advanced facilities and in 1926 became part of the university. In 1927, the department created a Master of Science program in physics, the first of its kind in China, promoting original research among its faculty and students. Before the Japanese army shut down the university in December 1941, more than ninety Chinese young men and women had completed their study in this department with a research thesis. A considerable number of Yenching graduates went on to earn their doctorates in America or Europe and subsequently returned home, becoming leading physicists in China in the twentieth century. Among them, Kun Huang (黃昆‎, Class 1941) and Chia-Lin Hsieh (謝家麟‎, Class 1943) even won the State Preeminent Science and Technology Awards, the highest scientific honor in China, in 2001 and 2011 respectively.

Despite ongoing challenges that hinder educational improvement and professional promotion, highly educated women are making significant contributions in China. Chinese women often experience discrimination and pressures during their educations and within university settings. They are sometimes overlooked for training opportunities and promotion, and they are frequently denied the same funding allocations as their male counterparts. The purpose of this discussion is to explore enduring attitudes that have historically led to these challenges and to enlighten those who are interested in the struggles, successes, and contributions of highly educated Chinese women.

On a late summer morning in June 2014, 12 female Chinese graduate students attended a workshop on conducting field interviews in rural Shaanxi province. The graduate students were selected from a top university for a research project on late birth registration and the “missing girls” in China. We told the students that the aim of the workshop was to train them in professional interviewing practices so they could survey rural families and learn about the process and challenges involved in late birth registration, that is, families registering their older children for the first time. While the national law states that births must be registered within the first month, some families wait for many months, sometimes even years, before registration, and this can influence local and national birth statistics as well as the reported sex ratio at birth (SRB). After the initial introduction to the research topic and workshop schedule, we asked the students if they had any questions. One young woman sitting in the back of the class asked: “how are we going to find these families and unregistered children?” We looked around the room and asked if anybody in this group had an immediate family member who was not registered at birth. Four students, who were from the countryside, raised their hands and admitted that their younger siblings had not been registered until they were four or five years old. We then asked if they knew anyone from their extended families who had been involved in a late birth registration, and two more students raised their hands. This answered the young woman’s question neatly and concretely. Interestingly, the following day, one of the students said she had called her mother to tell her her classmates’ fascinating stories regarding unregistered children, and her mother admitted to her that she, too, had remained unregistered until the age of two....