Academic literature on the topic 'Women – Malawi – Economic conditions'
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Journal articles on the topic "Women – Malawi – Economic conditions"
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Cherchye, Laurens, Bram De Rock, Frederic Vermeulen, and Selma Walther. "Where did it go wrong? Marriage and divorce in Malawi." Quantitative Economics 12, no. 2 (2021): 505–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3982/qe1272.
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Do individuals marry and divorce for economic reasons? Can we measure the economic attractiveness of a person's marriage market? We answer these questions using a structural model of consumer‐producer households that is applied to rich data from Malawi. Using revealed preference conditions for a stable marriage market, we define the economic attractiveness of a potential match as the difference between the potential value of consumption and leisure with the new partner and the value of consumption and leisure in the current marriage. We estimate this marital instability measure for every possible pair in geographically defined marriage markets in 2010. We find that the marital instability measure is predictive of future divorces, particularly for women. We further show that this estimated effect on divorce is mitigated by the woman's age, and by a lack of men, relative to women, in the marriage market, showing that these factors interact with the economic attractiveness of the remarriage market. These findings provide out‐of‐sample validation of our model and evidence that the economic value of the marriage market matters for divorce decisions.
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Ajith K., Kumar. "A study on the economic status of women domestic workers and Covid-19 treatment affordability in private hospitals in Kerala State." International Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Research 6, no. 9 (September 15, 2021): 13–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.54121/2021/09/1492.
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Background: The women domestic workers are neglected class of unorganized sector, although many social security measures and wage guarantee legislations are enacted, yet the working conditions and socio-economic status of women domestic workers are still in malady. The onset of covid-19 pandemic towards end of 2019 made matter highly worse for women domestic workers, by making them jobless and restrict to stay home finding hard to meet both ends. Many of these women are infected by covid-19 and several died of insufficient treatment and poor health conditions. The treatment charges in private hospitals for covid-19 is too high to afford by daily earning women domestic workers. Even after Kerala government put a cap to various covid treatment costs in private hospitals, the second wave of covid-19 witnessed filling up of government hospitals with patients and many of the people are forced to rely on private hospitals to save life. It is high time to think the insufficient economic and health schemes of women domestic workers and provide a comprehensive multi-faceted developmental policy toadopt by government. Objectives: The primary objective of the study is to analyze the covid-19 treatment affordability of women domestic workers in private hospital in association with their monthly family income. Methods/Statistical operations: The study is conducted in Palakkad district of Kerala state. The sampling technique adopted is simple random method from different age group of women domestic workers. A total of 150 women domestic workers is identified and tool used for survey is structured interview according to the convenience of the respondents. Findings: The study found that the covid- 19 treatment charges fixed by government is still unaffordable to majority of income range groups and only 5 percent have monthly family income to afford thefive-daygeneral ward treatment charges with normal medicines in private hospitals.
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Nzunda, Matembo. "New Company Law for Malawi." Journal of African Law 33, no. 1 (1989): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021855300007944.
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Company law needs to be reformed so as to promote and maintain the protection of the interests of shareholders, creditors and the community. These are the three “social and economic needs to which a system of company law should respond”. These three purposes of company law are not mutually exclusive. However, the weighting of them depends on the space factor and time factor of law reform. Space factor refers to the differences in economic, social, political and other conditions and needs between one country and another at a given time. So, “Whereas in Britain one of the main purposes of company legislation is to protect the interests of shareholders, in a developing country like Malawi its main function should be to protect the interests of the national economy since most of the effective shareholders will in fact be non-resident in the country.” Time factor refers to the differences in economic, social, political and other conditions and needs of a country between one time and another. For example, the increasing internationalisation of the Malawian political economy, through branches and subsidiaries of multinational companies and joint-ventures, may demand that companies’ legislation in Malawi respond to the conditions and needs of such an economy. Of course, the two factors constantly act on each other.
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Machira, Kennedy, Beston Maonga, and Tobias Chirwa. "Determinants of Risky Sexual Behavioral Practices among Teen-girls in Malawi." Open Public Health Journal 13, no. 1 (December 31, 2020): 839–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874944502013010839.
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Background: In Malawi, having multiple sexual partners and engaging in sexual intercourse without using condoms remain a sexual and reproductive health challenge among women. This has consequently increased morbidity and low productivity among women, especially in young women of the country. This paper examined the determinants of risky sexual behavioral practices among teen women in Malawi. Methods: The study used 2015-16 Malawi Demographic Health Survey with a weighted sample of 5263 women under 20 years. Both Bivariate and multivariate statistical analyses were used to estimate factors influencing risky sexual behavioral practices among teen women. Results: The study found the existence of differential determinants to influence women’s conduct in having both multiple sexual partners and inability to use condom during subsequent sexual intercourses with partners other than spouses. For instance, education (complete primary, IRR=2.755, p<0.001 and complete secondary education, IRR=3.515, p< 0.001); teen motherhood status (IRR = 0.295, p< 0.001), unavailability of the health care services (IRR=1.043, p<0.05) among others positively determined having multiple sexual partners in Malawi among teen women. On the contrary, wealth status (medium, IRR=1.116, p<0.001; rich, IRR=1.194, p<0.001) reduced teen women’s behavior of not using a condom with partners other than spouses during sexual intercourse. Conclusion: The study asserts that in Malawi, there is an urgent need for advocacy programmes aimed at reducing sexual and reproductive health challenges among girls at primary school levels and upwards. Equipping the girls, at a community level, with basic knowledge and understanding about the dangers of practicing risky sexual behavior is fundamental for the enhancement of their socio-economic support.
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Kumwenda, M., B.-T. Nyang'wa, B. Chikuse, T. Biseck, S. Maosa, A. Chilembwe, A. Dimba, J. Mpunga, C. Shaw, and M. Brouwer. "The second sputum sample complicates tuberculosis diagnosis for women: a qualitative study from Malawi." International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 21, no. 12 (December 1, 2017): 1258–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.17.0146.
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SETTING: District hospital and peripheral health care facilities in Balaka District, Malawi.OBJECTIVE: To identify barriers encountered by women in submitting a second sputum sample.DESIGN: Focus-group discussions and semi-structured interviews.RESULTS: Women encounter barriers at several levels: personal, cultural, socio-economic and health care system. Personal, cultural and socio-economic barriers include the fear of a tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis, the perception and condition of the patient, the distance and cost of travel to a health care facility, the subordinate position of women in household decision-making and the social support that women receive. Barriers at the health care system level include high patient numbers, staff shortages, the duration of the TB diagnostic process as well as the uncaring attitude and poor communication of health care workers. These barriers may apply not only to the submission of the second sample, but to health care access in general.CONCLUSION: Women face multiple barriers in submitting a second sputum sample. These do not operate in isolation but instead compound each other. Although potential solutions to overcome these barriers are recognised, some have yet to be adopted. To improve TB case finding, innovative and community approaches should be adopted more rapidly.
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Kazanga, Isabel, Alister C. Munthali, Joanne McVeigh, Hasheem Mannan, and Malcolm MacLachlan. "Predictors of Utilisation of Skilled Maternal Healthcare in Lilongwe District, Malawi." International Journal of Health Policy and Management 8, no. 12 (August 13, 2019): 700–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/ijhpm.2019.67.
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Background: Despite numerous efforts to improve maternal and child health in Malawi, maternal and newborn mortality rates remain very high, with the country having one of the highest maternal mortality ratios globally. The aim of this study was to identify which individual factors best predict utilisation of skilled maternal healthcare in a sample of women residing in Lilongwe district of Malawi. Identifying which of these factors play a significant role in determining utilisation of skilled maternal healthcare is required to inform policies and programming in the interest of achieving increased utilisation of skilled maternal healthcare in Malawi. Methods: This study used secondary data from the Woman’s Questionnaire of the 2010 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey (MDHS). Data was analysed from 1126 women aged between 15 and 49 living in Lilongwe. Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to determine significant predictors of maternal healthcare utilisation. Results: Women’s residence (P=.006), education (P=.004), and wealth (P=.018) were significant predictors of utilisation of maternal healthcare provided by a skilled attendant. Urban women were less likely (odds ratio [OR] = 0.47, P=.006, 95% CI = 0.28–0.81) to utilise a continuum of maternal healthcare from a skilled health attendant compared to rural women. Similarly, women with less education (OR = 0.32, P=.001, 95% CI = 0.16–0.64), and poor women (OR = 0.50, P=.04, 95% CI = 0.26–0.97) were less likely to use a continuum of maternal healthcare from a skilled health attendant. Conclusion: Policies and programmes should aim to increase utilisation of skilled maternal healthcare for women with less education and low-income status. Specifically, emphasis should be placed on promoting education and economic empowerment initiatives, and creating awareness about use of maternal healthcare services among girls, women and their respective communities.
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Prynn, Josephine E., Albert Dube, Elenaus Mwaiyeghele, Oddie Mwiba, Steffen Geis, Olivier Koole, Moffat Nyirenda, Hannah Kuper, and Amelia C. Crampin. "Self-reported disability in rural Malawi: prevalence, incidence, and relationship to chronic conditions." Wellcome Open Research 4 (October 21, 2020): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15196.3.
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Background: Disability is a complex concept involving physical impairment, activity limitation, and participation restriction. The Washington Group developed a set of questions on six functional domains (seeing, hearing, walking, remembering, self-care, and communicating) to allow collection of comparable data on disability. We aimed to improve understanding of prevalence and correlates of disability in this low-income setting in Malawi. Methods: This study is nested in the Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in Malawi; the Washington Group questions were added to the annual survey in 2014. We used cross-sectional data from the 2014 survey to estimate the current prevalence of disability and examine associations of disability with certain chronic conditions. We then reviewed the incidence and resolution of disability over time using panel data from the 2015 survey. Results: Of 10,863 participants, 9.6% (95% CI 9.0-10.1%) reported disability in at least one domain. Prevalence was higher among women and increased with age. Diabetes and obesity were associated with disability among women, and diabetes was also associated with disability among men. Neither hypertension nor HIV were associated with disability. Participants reporting “no difficulty” or “can’t do at all” for any domain were likely to report the same status one year later, whereas there was considerable movement between people describing “some difficulty” and “a lot of difficulty”. Conclusions: Disability prevalence is high and likely to increase over time. Further research into the situation of this population is crucial to ensure inclusive policies are created and sustainable development goals are met.
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Prynn, Josephine E., Albert Dube, Elenaus Mwaiyeghele, Oddie Mwiba, Steffen Geis, Olivier Koole, Moffat Nyirenda, Hannah Kuper, and Amelia C. Crampin. "Self-reported disability in rural Malawi: prevalence, incidence, and relationship to chronic conditions." Wellcome Open Research 4 (December 22, 2020): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15196.4.
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Background: Disability is a complex concept involving physical impairment, activity limitation, and participation restriction. The Washington Group developed a set of questions on six functional domains (seeing, hearing, walking, remembering, self-care, and communicating) to allow collection of comparable data on disability. We aimed to improve understanding of prevalence and correlates of disability in this low-income setting in Malawi. Methods: This study is nested in the Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in Malawi; the Washington Group questions were added to the annual survey in 2014. We used cross-sectional data from the 2014 survey to estimate the current prevalence of disability and examine associations of disability with certain chronic conditions. We then reviewed the incidence and resolution of disability over time using panel data from the 2015 survey. Results: Of 10,863 participants, 9.6% (95% CI 9.0-10.1%) reported disability in at least one domain. Prevalence was higher among women and increased with age. Diabetes and obesity were associated with disability among women, and diabetes was also associated with disability among men. Neither hypertension nor HIV were associated with disability. Participants reporting “no difficulty” or “can’t do at all” for any domain were likely to report the same status one year later, whereas there was considerable movement between people describing “some difficulty” and “a lot of difficulty”. Conclusions: Disability prevalence is high and likely to increase over time. Further research into the situation of this population is crucial to ensure inclusive policies are created and sustainable development goals are met.
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Prynn, Josephine E., Albert Dube, Elenaus Mwaiyeghele, Oddie Mwiba, Steffen Geis, Olivier Koole, Moffat Nyirenda, Hannah Kuper, and Amelia C. Crampin. "Self-reported disability in rural Malawi: prevalence, incidence, and relationship to chronic conditions." Wellcome Open Research 4 (August 27, 2021): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15196.5.
Full textAbstract:
Background: Disability is a complex concept involving physical impairment, activity limitation, and participation restriction. The Washington Group developed a set of questions on six functional domains (seeing, hearing, walking, remembering, self-care, and communicating) to allow collection of comparable data on disability. We aimed to improve understanding of prevalence and correlates of disability in this low-income setting in Malawi. Methods: This study is nested in the Karonga Health and Demographic Surveillance Site in Malawi; the Washington Group questions were added to the annual survey in 2014. We used cross-sectional data from the 2014 survey to estimate the current prevalence of disability and examine associations of disability with certain chronic conditions. We then reviewed the incidence and resolution of disability over time using panel data from the 2015 survey. Results: Of 10,863 participants, 9.6% (95% CI 9.0-10.1%) reported disability in at least one domain. Prevalence was higher among women and increased with age. Diabetes and obesity were associated with disability among women, and diabetes was also associated with disability among men. Neither hypertension nor HIV were associated with disability. Participants reporting “no difficulty” or “can’t do at all” for any domain were likely to report the same status one year later, whereas there was considerable movement between people describing “some difficulty” and “a lot of difficulty”. Conclusions: Disability prevalence is high and likely to increase over time. Further research into the situation of this population is crucial to ensure inclusive policies are created and sustainable development goals are met.
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Pal, Dharam, and Gian Singh. "Socio-economic conditions of women labour households in rural Punjab." Indian Journal of Economics and Development 10, no. 1 (2014): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/j.2322-0430.10.1.002.
Full textDissertations / Theses on the topic "Women – Malawi – Economic conditions"
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Waldorff, Pétur. "Conceptions of poverty and development in a Malawian village setting." Thesis, McGill University, 2006. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=99612.
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This thesis is the result of ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Phalombe District in Malawi, Southern Africa, where I studied agricultural development projects in the village of Kachala. The focus of this investigation is on people's perceptions and ideas of development co-operation and the meanings of development and poverty in general. Perceptions of development and poverty among villagers in Kachala are compared to those of development agents working for development organizations in the area. These perceptions are also compared to the definitions of development and poverty found throughout development literature. This research demonstrates - through examples from Phalombe District and elsewhere - how notions of development are relative, diverse and context-specific, and therefore not static and universally applicable. Finally, participatory development ideals and the structurally unequal donor-recipient relationships, at the core of the current development system, are discussed. This thesis illustrates how the common portrayal of development as an oppressive, disempowering industry, characterized by top-down interventions, does not always apply.
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Smith, Hevina N. "Economic dependence and Malawi's foreign policy posture toward South Africa." Thesis, McGill University, 1985. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=65917.
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Lihoma, Paul. "The impact of administrative change on record keeping in Malawi." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 2012. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/3573/.
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This research traces the development of public administration in Malawi from the pre-colonial period to the post-colonial period up to 2012, and finds that public administration in Malawi has spanned four epochs: the pre-colonial traditional African administration; the British Colonial Administration from 1891 to 1964; the post-colonial administration under the one party regime from 1964 to 1994; and the post-colonial administration under the multiparty democracy from 1994 to the present period, 2012. Of particular interest to the research are the major factors that have led to administrative change through this public administration spectrum, and how the changes have affected information and record keeping. The research seeks to establish the relationship that exists between administrative change and record keeping. The research finds that colonialism was a change factor which transformed the pre-colonial administrative set-up and its information keeping systems, and led to the establishment of the Western bureaucracy and record keeping systems modelled on those in Britain. The enactment of the Native Authority Ordinance in 1933 established Native Authorities, which comprised local chiefs and their councillors, as part of the local government. The establishment of the Native Authorities resulted in the establishment of record keeping systems that captured and maintained official records at local levels of government throughout the country. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland as one of the remarkable administrative developments during the colonial period promoted records management programmes and led to the establishment of the National Archives in Malawi. As part of the administrative change in preparation for the transfer of power, the Treasury’s Organisation and Methods Unit reviewed and instituted new record keeping systems for government departments. Before the transfer of power, the research finds that the Colonial Administration exported some categories of records to London and ordered the destruction of certain categories of records held by District Commissioners throughout the country. Furthermore, the research finds that soon after the transfer of power, the new administration disregarded record keeping by repealing the Records Management regulations from the Malawi Public Service Regulations. This has been detrimental to public sector record keeping. Additionally, the one party government imposed controls on access to public archives by frequently closing the Archives, imposing lengthy and difficult access procedures, limiting areas for research, and using the Archives for intelligence surveillance. This thesis finds that, towards the end of the one party regime, some sensitive records were destroyed by the outgoing regime. After the attainment of democracy, the research finds that public archives were made widely and easily accessible, and that the public archives asumed a new meaning for ordinary people who had suffered from widespread attrocities during the one party regime. A number of governance reforms that have been undertaken have on the one hand, resulted in the promotion of records management and on the other hand, relied heavily on good record keeping for their successful implementation. Additionally, the research finds that technological developments have shaped the way in which the public sector generates and manages records today. Last, but not least, the research finds that implementation of some of the International Monetary Fund/World Bank policy reforms, such as privatisation of public enterprises, downsising, and freeze in public service employment, have impacted both positively and negatively on record keeping in Malawi. Likewise, implementation of the New Public Management policy reforms, such as commercialisation of the Staff Development Institute of Malawi, and compulsory competitive bidding in the public service, have had both positive and negative effects on record keeping. The research concludes that the developments that have taken place during all the four administrative epochs have had an immense bearing on record keeping, and therefore a direct relationship exists between administrative change and record keeping. Administrative change is responsible for shaping record keeping over a period of time and as long as administrative change occurs, record keeping will keep on developing in response. Although this is the case, good record keeping plays an important role in facilitating effective implementation of public sector reforms that result from administrative change. Citing Malawi as a case study, this thesis concludes that administrative change and public sector reforms provide a better context for understanding the history and development of record keeping in a country, than any other context because administrative change and public sector reforms are necessitated by the interaction of socio-political, economic and technological factors.
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Shawa, Mary. "Effect of economic improvement projects for women in Malawi on nutritional, economic and social status of household members." Thesis, King's College London (University of London), 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.251607.
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Mchakulu, Mphatso Grace. "Rural Malawi households' environmental concern and consciousness about appropriate energy consumption practices amidst prevailing socio-economic conditions." Thesis, University of Pretoria, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/77847.
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Malawi rural households’ dependence on fuelwood as a form of energy and as a source of income is contributing to alarming rates of deforestation in the country with detrimental consequences for climate change. This study targeted two of the rural areas in the southern part of Malawi, worst affected by climate change in recent years. The study aimed to generate empirical evidence of households’ energy consumption as a consequence of their way of life, and to gather evidence of their practical- and discursive consciousness concerning sustainable consumption practices and climate change as pre-requisites to facilitate and promote behavioural change. This research was conducted in three sequential phases. Phase 1 entailed a quantitative survey that involved 231 non randomly selected households from two rural areas, namely Balaka and Phalombe, in the south of Malawi. Questionnaires were completed in interview format, facilitated by trained research assistants following a pre-test in a nearby village. Phase 2 entailed focus group discussions with selected members from phase 1, to allow opportunity for discussion of main topics. Phase 3 involved the contribution of government officials and important role players to share their views about environmental issues, the issue of indiscriminate deforestation and use of energy sources by communities.
Results show that biomass, including fuelwood, is still the predominant source of energy that most rural households use for diverse activities because other sources of energy are either inaccessible, or too expensive. Negative consequences such as respiratory problems caused
by smoke inhalation are therefore common among females and children who are constantly exposed to toxic substances that are present in the air in their homes and immediate surrounds. The wood that is used, is mostly collected by females who perform this tedious task almost daily, collecting from nearby woodlots and forests, further aggravating deforestation.
Households’ practical consciousness of sustainable energy consumption practices seem fairly good and their discursive consciousness, specifically with regard to the effect of climate change on rainfall patterns, micro- and macro factors that are responsible for climate change, are fairly impressive. This may be attributed to first-hand experience of the environmental challenges that they have experienced in recent years. Unfortunately, lack of knowledge concerning the implications of their behaviour in terms of the economic growth of the country, as well as nearby countries’ well-being, confirm the complexity of the phenomenon that may be difficult for them to comprehend. Concerted effort is thus required by local- and Governmental bodies to educate and empower communities socially and economically, also to supply safer sources of energy to replace what they are obliged to use presently. Rural households are struggling financially and will not be able to adapt their behavioral practices without the premeditated support of government and relevant role players who have an interest in environmental issues and who have the well-being of Malawi citizens at heart.Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2019.
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
PhD
Unrestricted
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Kalebe-Nyamongo, Chipiliro Florence. "Elite attitudes towards the poor and pro-poor policy in Malawi." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2012. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/3398/.
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This thesis uses the theory of ‘social consciousness’ to analyse elite perceptions of poverty in Malawi,and identify the circumstances under which elites are willing to mobilize resources for poverty reduction. ‘Social Consciousness theory’ stipulates that pro-poor policies in European welfare states developed as a result of ideological and pragmatic concern about the negative impact of poverty on elite welfare. This study shows however that although elites in Malawi have a deep understanding and appreciation of the extent and severity of poverty and are linked with the poor through strong social networks and the extended family structure, they do not perceive the poor as a threat to their welfare. Therefore collective action to address the problem of poverty has not occurred. In circumstances where elites acknowledge some negative externalities of poverty requiring action, individual solutions are sought. However, elite perceptions still illuminate the following: first, there is a causal explanation between elites’ perceptions of the causes of poverty and their support for particular policies. Second, elites’ perceived causes of poverty include structural, behavioural and the perceived future actions of the poor, such as laziness, following implementation of redistributive policies. Third, elites’ seem to support policies with wider benefits for society.
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Anderson, Emma-Louise. "Women and power in the vulnerability to HIV infection : the case of Malawi." Thesis, University of Southampton, 2009. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/72295/.
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As the HIV/AIDS pandemic matures increasingly more women are infected than men. The heightened prevalence amongst women suggests that they are at particular risk of infection. Although the gendered dimensions of HIV/AIDS have been recognised, this is not fully understood and the tendency is to respond at a surface level only. This research provides a critique of the current response to HIV/AIDS in Malawi and a theoretically informed analysis of why women are vulnerable. It is argued that the response is limited because it fails to engage with the gendered dimensions; and that gendered structures of power underscore the vulnerability of women to infection. This research makes an important contribution to the feminist task of radically challenging the conventional boundaries of international relations, which typically draws upon a masculine form of knowledge. It also challenges the dominance of the scientific discourse that governs the way HIV/AIDS is conceived and makes an important contribution to the literature on understanding the gender context. A ‘feminist interprevist’ approach is employed and the methodology is a combination of a case study analysis, semi-structured key informant interviews, documentary analysis and data analysis. Feminist critical theory and post-structuralist understandings of how power operates through gendered structures provide the theoretical basis for the empirical analysis. The critique of the response to HIV/AIDS in Malawi reveals how it fails to engage with the gender power relations because of pervasive gendered structures. Three aspects of women’s vulnerability to HIV infection are explored: the majority of women are not in the position to negotiate for safer sex; many women do not have the power to leave a marriage if it puts them at risk of infection; and the biological susceptibility of women to infection. It is argued that gendered structures underscore this vulnerability. The gendered structures are deeply embedded and hard to discern. However, where HIV/AIDS travels along the fault lines of society it reveals these deeper structures of power and provides the opportunity to challenge them. It reveals the importance of empowering women across their lives in order for a sustainable and effective response to HIV/AIDS.
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Lalonde, Gloria Marjorie Lucy. "National development and the changing status of women in India : a state by state analysis." Thesis, McGill University, 1985. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=66067.
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Hategekimana, Celestin. "Women's empowerment in the post-1994 Rwanda: the case study of Mayaga Region." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/1314.
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This research looks at the process of women’s empowerment in post- 1994 Rwanda, with special focus on twelve cooperatives working in Mayaga region and the way these cooperatives empower women, their households and the community at large. Traditional Rwandan society has been always bound by patriarchy which has not valued the reproductive roles of women as economically productive in their households and the society as a whole. On the one hand, this understanding was reversed in the post-1994 Rwanda by the commitment of the government to gender equality at the highest level of political leadership through progressive policies and legislation. On the other hand, in Mayaga region, cooperatives brought about socio-economic development and changed relationships of gender and power in a patriarchal post-conflict society. The findings from cooperatives in Mayaga region show that to prevent women from reaching their full potential is economic folly. If women are empowered, they can generate important development outcomes such as improved health, education, income levels and conflict resolution. The findings further indicate how women’s empowerment is determined by the livelihood strategies women adopt themselves to respond to their vulnerability, and by the ways in which they express their agency in making a living in a sustainable way, with the available community assets that they have access to (financial, social, human, natural and physical). This research highlights that the accessibility of the community assets used by women in Mayaga region and in Rwanda as a whole is also determined by policies, institutions and processes that are able to influence their livelihoods positively.
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Gordon, Eleanor J. "Women and the labour movement in Scotland, 1850-1914." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 1985. http://theses.gla.ac.uk/4883/.
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In recent years there has been a concerted effort by feminist historians to retrieve women from historical obscurity and reinsert them into the historical landscape. Early research concentrated on this task of reclamation and produced a number of self-contained monographs and studies of women's lives. However, the emphasis has shifted towards viewing the sexual divison of labour as a central object of study and as a tool of analysis and evaluating its impact on the historical process. It is argued that in this way feminist history can transform our knowledge of the past and contribute to a greater understanding of the process of historical change. The present study seeks to contribute to this project by examining the lives of working women in Scotland between 1850 and 1914. It takes issue with standard accounts which assume that women's paid labour and women's organisation at the point of production will take male forms and argues that gender ideologies had a significant impact on women's experience of work. The pattern of women's employment 1S examined and it is illustrated that because work has been defined according to the male norm of full-time permanent work, outside the home, the extent of women's paid labour has been seriously underestimated. It is also argued that in order to account for the characteristics of female employment it is necessary to take ideological factors into consideration and that notions of what constitutes women's 'proper' role in society had a pattern of women's employment. important role played by trade powerful influence on the The study identifies the unions in maintaining occupational segregation and confirming women's work as unskilled and low paid. It is also suggested that the model of labour organisations was influenced inter-alia by an ideology of gender which limited its ability to relate to the experience of women workers. It is argued that women's experience of work was mediated by their subordination as a gender and that this generated particular forms of resistance and organisation which did not necessarily conform to the standard male forms. The study concludes that we have to reappraise the received view of women workers as apathetic and difficult to organise and suggests that alternative forms of labour organisations which do not reflect but challenge gender divisions are required.
Books on the topic "Women – Malawi – Economic conditions"
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Mvula, Peter. Women in Malawi. Zomba, Malawi: University of Malawi, Centre for Social Research, 1997.
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Buruku, A. Daisy Sykes. A study of socio-economic aspects of Mozambican women refugees: Strategy for training needs in Malawi. Chikwawa, Malawi: UNHCH, 1989.
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Pitamber, Sunita. Factors impeding the poverty reduction capacity of micro-credit: Some field observations from Malawi and Ethiopia. Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire: African Development Bank, 2003.
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Semu, Linda. The Malawi platform for action: Peace, violence against women, the girl child, and economic empowerment : final report. Zomba [Malawi]: Sociology Dept., Centre for Educational Research, Chancellor College, 1995.
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Chipande, Graham H. R. The position of women in Malawi and the role of UNICEF aided projects: An appraisal. [Zomba, Malawi]: University of Malawi, Centre for Social Research, 1985.
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Nelson, Candace. Malawi: A needs assessment for the Ministry of Community Services' new program for promotion of income generation for rural women. [Lilongwe]: The Ministry, 1989.
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1950-, Ng Cecilia, Jomo K. S, and Bee Jahara, eds. Malay peasant women and the land. London: Zed Books, 1994.
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Stivens, Maila. Malay peasant women and the land: A study prepared for the International Labour Office within the framework of the World Employment Programme. London: Zed, 1994.
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Malawi. Consideration of reports submitted by states parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Combined second, third, fourth and fifth periodic report of states parties : Malawi. [New York]: United Nations, 2004.
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Malawi Confederation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry. The Malawi business climate survey report. Blantyre: Malawi Confederation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry, 2012.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Women – Malawi – Economic conditions"
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Bettio, Francesca, Gianni Betti, and Elisa Ticci. "The Fuzzy Perspective on Violence against Women." In Analysis of Socio-Economic Conditions, 219–38. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. |: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003053712-14.
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Afsar, Md, and Suman Kumari. "Women Journalists in India’s Rural Areas: Social and Economic Conditions." In Techno-Societal 2020, 1107–15. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69925-3_105.
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Kolinichenko, Irina A., Svetlana A. Nikulina, Ekaterina N. Asrieva, and Elena E. Basanova. "Study of Attitude to Pregnancy and Identity of Pregnant Women in Modern Socio-economic Conditions." In Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 120–28. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69415-9_14.
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Moebius, Stephan. "Sociology in the German Democratic Republic." In Sociology in Germany, 123–39. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71866-4_5.
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AbstractIn the GDR (German Democratic Republic), sociology did not emerge until the 1960s. In 1963, the party program of the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED, Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SUPG) explicitly called for the establishment of sociological research. GDR sociology developed under completely different conditions than in West Germany. It was overshadowed by Marxist-Leninist philosophy and political economy as well as instrumentalized by economic policy. Its focus was on the basic categories of work and production. The connection to economic policy and historical materialism promoted the tendency to economic reductionism in sociology. Sociology in the GDR was not based on the general tradition of sociology, which was understood as “bourgeois.” Besides Marx, the founding figures of sociology were avoided; not only were they seen as “bourgeois sociologists,” but many of them had also focused on meaningful action and the understanding of social processes rather than on the analysis of the laws of social development. Methodologically, the main focus was on quantitative methods. Sociology had the function of confirming the social laws whose theoretical interpretation was then reserved for historical materialism. It was not until the late 1980s that the situation changed somewhat and the relative autonomy of the social came increasingly into focus. This also led to first approaches to study the social position of women and gender relations. Overall, sociology in the GDR remained committed to a canonizing interpretation of Marxism-Leninism. In addition, it placed itself largely at the service of political power. Because of this its performance was limited enormously. Only when the social processes and dynamics could no longer be adequately described within the conventional ideological framework did certain changes occur.
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"Not just economic conditions." In Women, Health and Public Services in India, 24–41. Routledge India, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315626512-8.
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Soleimani, Mohammad, and Hasan Kiaee. "The Socio-Economic Conditions of Women in Iran." In Economic Empowerment of Women in the Islamic World, 349–68. WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789811212154_0017.
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"5. The Changing Conditions of Women in Dairying." In Women's Work, Markets and Economic Development in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/9781442657526-007.
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Al-Ali, Nadje. "Iraqi Women’s Agency." In Women Rising, 98–106. NYU Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479846641.003.0012.
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In this chapter, Nadje Al-Ali explores Iraqi women’s agency in the context of severely curtailed living conditions due, historically, to dictatorship, economic sanctions, wars, occupation, invasion, and, recently, increasing sectarianism, authoritarianism, and Islamist militancy, including ISIS. One of the main arguments is that the structural conditions that have limited women’s agency need to be explored through an intersectional lens.
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Hamer, Sam, and Jeremy Seekings. "Social Assistance, Electoral Competition, and Political Branding in Malawi." In The Politics of Social Protection in Eastern and Southern Africa, 225–48. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198850342.003.0009.
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Whilst partisan competition has fuelled the expansion of social assistance across much of Africa, social assistance has generally been a valence issue. In Malawi, unusually, the competing presidential candidates and their parties in the 2014 election staked out starkly contrasting positions on social assistance as part of their attempted supra-regional and supra-ethnic political ‘branding’. The incumbent president, Joyce Banda, championed social assistance for women, children, and the poor, whilst her rivals denounced ‘handouts’ and emphasized instead economic growth and support for peasant farmers. Banda’s defeat suggests that there are limits to the efficacy of social assistance for political branding. Nonetheless, the fact that she used this brand at all suggests that social assistance has grown in political significance as an expression of pro-poor priorities.
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Birdwhistell, Terry L., and Deirdre A. Scaggs. "Economic Depression and an Uncertain Future." In Our Rightful Place, 130–63. University Press of Kentucky, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5810/kentucky/9780813179377.003.0005.
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This chapter explores the impact of the Great Depression on women students at UK. To support financially strapped women students the university utilized several New Deal student work programs and established group houses where women students could live more frugally. Highlighted are the contradictions between women’s academic aspirations and successes and their vocational and educational opportunities after college, made even more problematic by the worsening economic conditions. Combining a career with marriage remained almost impossible for most women college graduates. Moreover, women students still had to endure both subtle and obvious sex discrimination in the classroom. Also discussed is the establishment of a women’s building on campus, where women students and faculty could gather and where women’s organizations could meet. By the end of the 1930s the Woman’s Building was closed with the opening of a new student union.
Conference papers on the topic "Women – Malawi – Economic conditions"
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Sanzhieva, Tatiana. "Personnel Problems of the «Burmongolles» Trust in the Years of the Great Reporting War." In Irkutsk Historical and Economic Yearbook 2020. Baikal State University, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/978-5-7253-3017-5.18.
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The article is devoted to personnel problems in the forest industry of Buryatia during the Great Patriotic War. In wartime conditions, experienced forestry workers who went to the front were replaced by women, retirees, and war invalids with no special training. In this regard, military production tasks were not always carried out. In wartime conditions, such a situation was unacceptable, therefore, measures were taken to eliminate the shortcomings that arose.
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Burleson, Grace, Brian Butcher, Brianna Goodwin, and Kendra Sharp. "Assisting Economic Opportunity for Women Through Appropriate Engineering Design of a Soap-Making Process in Uganda." In ASME 2016 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2016-59715.
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TERREWODE, a non-governmental organization in Uganda, works to eradicate obstetric fistula in local communities and provide income-generating skills training to the affected women. Obstetric fistula is a traumatic childbirth injury caused by prolonged, obstructed labor and delayed intervention. The condition is preventable with proper medical attention, however, in rural areas women who suffer from the condition are typically disowned from their families and communities [1]. As part of their social reintegration program, TERREWODE provides training for women post-treatment in multiple income-generating skill areas; jewelry making, baking, cooking, sewing, and buying/selling produce. The soap-making idea originated within TERREWODE itself and is intended to create an income stream for the women participating. The scope of this senior capstone project, in collaboration with several organizations, is to increase efficiency, reliability, and repeatability of the soap-making process and explore potential avenues for powering the system in an off-grid setting. A weighted-design matrix was used to make engineering decisions throughout the project. The two primary engineering aspects of this project were the selection of soap-making process (hot vs. cold) and the selection of a mixing device and powering unit. Understanding of appropriate manufacturing technologies in Uganda was necessary as all materials and tools needed to be locally available for success for the project. The hot process requires maintaining the soap mixture at a constant temperature for roughly two hours or until the gel phase occurs. This process allows for a short curing time, permitting the soap to be ready for use sooner. Opposing this, the cold process requires little cook time but a lengthy curing time. Experimental data showed that maintaining a consistent temperature over an extended period of time while using a cookstove is nearly impossible, even in a controlled lab environment. The cold process was selected as a better suited solution for manufacturing due to field conditions and available resources. A mixing device is crucial to the soap-making process. Due to the unreliability of grid-based electricity in the region, the team considered both a human-powered mixing solution and a solar-powered mixing solution [2]. TERREWODE leadership steered the team away from creating a human powered bike mixer for fear of discouraging women to participate, due to potential health and comfort issues. The team selected a solar powered system and has tested a U.S. manufactured prototype. The ultimate goal of this soap-making project is to provide an opportunity for victims and survivors of obstetric fistula to earn a livelihood. The work done by the Oregon State (OSU) mechanical engineering design team, in conjunction with the OSU Anthropology department, University of Oregon College of Business, several private artists and entrepreneurs, and TERREWODE, will provide potential improvements to the process and implementation plan to more effectively and economically create soap.
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Nikoloski, Dimitar. "POVERTY AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM NORTH MACEDONIA." In Economic and Business Trends Shaping the Future. Ss Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Economics-Skopje, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.47063/ebtsf.2020.0019.
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Poverty and social exclusion are often associated with unemployment, but being employed is not always sufficient to provide decent living conditions for workers and their families. The ‘low-wage’ workers similarly as unemployed are often associated with an image of men and women struggling to support their families and living at risk of poverty and social exclusion. Dealing with the social stratification engendered from the employment status of workers in the post-transition countries represents a challenging task for the academics and policymakers. The aim of the paper is to assess the determinants of poverty in North Macedonia from the point of view of employment status, particularly the differences between low-paid and unemployed workers. We assess the factors affecting the probability of at-risk-of poverty status by estimating a logit model on cross-section data separately for employed and unemployed persons in 2015. The analysis draws from an examination of micro data from the Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC) whose main scope is to enable the compilation of statistics on income distribution, as well as indicators of monetary poverty. Besides other personal and household characteristics, being low-paid appears as the most important factor for at-risk-of poverty status among employed persons, while the low work intensity is the most responsible factor for at-risk-of poverty status among unemployed persons. In addition, our analysis reveals that the social transfers do not satisfactorily cover these categories, which assumes that we need a much broader arsenal of respective policy measures aiming to reduce poverty among the vulnerable labour market segments. The proposed policy recommendations cover the following areas: education and training, active labour market policies, unionisation and collective bargaining, wage subsidies and taxation and statutory minimum wage.
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Wahyurini, Endah, and Humam Santosa Utomo. "Creating Agricultural Product Innovations and Business Development: A Case in Farmer Women Group." In LPPM UPN "VETERAN" Yogyakarta International Conference Series 2020. RSF Press & RESEARCH SYNERGY FOUNDATION, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31098/pss.v1i1.182.
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The Covid-19 pandemic implies a decrease in family income, resulting in social problems such as unemployment and poverty. This study aims to describe the process of creating product innovation carried out by groups of women farmers by using the land around the house to grow vegetables and the challenges they face. The study was conducted on a group of female farmers in Bantul, Yogyakarta using a qualitative analysis approach. Data collection techniques used observation, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. The results of this study indicate that the crisis conditions and knowledge play an important role in the creation of innovation in agriculture. The diverse knowledge of the members creates new product and service innovation ideas. Universities, local governments, and industry play a role in encouraging the creation of innovation and the formation of joint ventures so that members get economic benefits. The women farmer groups have grown their roles, not only as social organizations but also in business organizations.
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Gökçek Karaca, Nuray, and Erol Karaca. "The Future Expectations and Laboration of Migrant Women From Turkey in Germany." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c07.01490.
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This study sought to investigate future expectations and laboration of the migrant women from Turkey in Germany. The research was carried out with 570 migrant women from Turkey in Germany in 2012-2013. The data were collected by using a questionnaire developed by the researcher based on a literature review. Data were analyzed with factor analysis by using the statistical package SPSS. According to the research results, a significant number of women said that they are housewives but not working. This result points out the continuity of perception and evaluation of being a housewife “as not a profession and form of labor”. The data about women except from housewives reveals the difficulties in their labor life and also the effectiveness of informal networks on laborization process. Overwhelming majority of these women have experienced various jobs and indicated lower and inadequate wages as the reason of these experiences. In addition, the most effective means in the process of finding jobs is the circle of acquaintances rather than job-creating agencies, trainings and employment tests. As a result of the inadequacy of formal structure, a significant number of women has to work with low wages and not obtained sufficient social benefits. In spite of the difficulties faced by women in their laborization process, a great majority of women have the social security right. The presence of social security, however, could not prevent feeling insecure about their future and negative evaluation about their economic conditions.
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Mikova, Rositza. "TRENDS AND PECULIARITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIRTH RATE IN THE RURAL AREAS OF SOUTH CENTRAL BULGARIA." In AGRIBUSINESS AND RURAL AREAS - ECONOMY, INNOVATION AND GROWTH 2021. University publishing house "Science and Economics", University of Economics - Varna, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36997/ara2021.231.
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Regarding the negative trends in the birth rate, South Central Bulgaria is no exception. The decrease in the birth rate in this part of the country, especially in the period 2011-2020, is a result of the economic crisis and its impact on the living standards of the population. In recent years, the value orientations of the population have changed a lot. Women of all ethnic and religious groups in the region demonstrate a new type of reproductive behavior. The age structure has deteriorated and the fertile contingents have significantly decreased. Each municipality has already adopted the model of simple reproduction of the population. In South Central Bulgaria, favorable conditions for stable demographic development no longer exist.
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Rosado, Ana Sophia, J. Santos Baptista, and J. C. Guedes. "Work-related musculoskeletal disorder and its costs: a short review." In 4th Symposium on Occupational Safety and Health. FEUP, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.24840/978-972-752-279-8_0056-0064.
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Introduction: Musculoskeletal disorder can result from extreme physical demands at work. It has risen, mainly due to high muscle demands and static postures and generates a significant economic burden to the companies. This short review aims to point out the statistics of the most affected body parts by work-related musculoskeletal disorders, assess absenteeism and presenteeism costs, and evaluate the effectiveness of the interventions. Methodology: According to the PRISMA Statement, the search was performed in 5 electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Pubmed). Articles selection was made by the title and abstract analysis, especially those aiming to explain and validate the subject. If the abstract fulfils the objective, the articles were read, and studies were considered that met the defined eligibility criteria. Were chosen articles that realised measurements or considered interventions in healthy human beings, especially in the working population, dated from 2015 to 2020. Results and Discussion: The scrutinised articles were conclusive that the most affected part of the body are the upper limbs, the neck and the upper back. The statistics ofthe affected workers varied according to the country and analysed tasks, but they converge concerning the most affected body parts. It could be noted that women are more affected by musculoskeletal disorders than men, especially older women; the reason, however, is not clearly explained. Muscle injury can lead high economic burden, mostly due to absenteeism and presenteeism. It was noted that the expenditure due to presenteeism is higher comparing to absenteeism in both developed and emergent countries. Conclusions: Due to high costs, companies are deploying strategies to improve work conditions and aware the workers about health and safety. Interventions have shown to be effective in reducing the risk of injuries. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders canbe extremely damaging to the workers’ health and are costly to the companies. Support supervisor interventions effectively improve work conditions and reduce the risk of damaging outcomes, increasing workers’ health, work ability, and, consequently, productivity.
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Birknerová, Zuzana, and Dagmara Ratnayake Kaščáková. "THE NECESSITY OF PSYCHOHYGIENE IN THE WORK OF TRADERS." In Fourth International Scientific Conference ITEMA Recent Advances in Information Technology, Tourism, Economics, Management and Agriculture. Association of Economists and Managers of the Balkans, Belgrade, Serbia, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31410/itema.2020.225.
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The rapid economic growth of many companies brings with it the need to pay more attention to issues of management and leadership of people in the conditions of a centralized model of economic management, as well as mental readiness for work and social position in business. Mental balance is one of the most important mental equipment of traders in personal and professional life. Therefore, in the article we assess the necessity of psychohygiene in the work of traders. Its role is to support and create favorable psychological conditions. The aim of the research is to determine the existence of statistically significant differences in the assessment of the attributes of psychohygiene between customers and traders. The research sample, out of the total number of 177 respondents, consists of 125 (70.6%) women and 52 (29.4%) men aged 18 - 70 years, while the average age is 41.08 years, the standard deviation is 7.913 years. Of the total number of respondents, 97 (54.8%) were traders and 80 (45.2%) were customers. The length of the respondents' internship ranged from 1 to 40 years (average 17.25 years, standard deviation 8.679 years). The research results were processed in statistical program IBM SPSS Statistics 22.00 and assessed by t- test for two independent samples. The authors focused on mental health care, proper lifestyle, stressors, work environment and time management.
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Yücel, Mustafa, Yaşar Aktaş, and Neslişah Taner. "What are the New Functions of Agriculture Cooperatives in the Progress of Globalization? The Case of Agriculture Cooperatives of Kastamonu." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c06.01231.
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While production and markets have been becoming more integrated since barriers to the international trade reduced, capital movements and the speed of spreading of technology increased with the progress of globalization, issues regarding to agriculture, environment, women, employment, and education became more critical.
In this research, “by which functions and missions can agricultural cooperatives sustain their assets under globalized conditions” is the major research question. In the research, 19 cooperatives were chosen among 308 cooperatives, depending on their distance to Kastamonu, foundation year, and the amount of member. Subjects were determined by their traits and occupations. 164 subjects were interviewed via survey questions in 2014-2015. In research, “The situation-specific approach” model, developed by Hartmut Albrecht was applied.
Because of the progress of change in organizational values, agriculture cooperatives have to undertake new functions in addition to maintaining agricultural production. The functions can be classified into 4 categories as socio-economic (taking local goods to international markets, recording incomes in the agriculture sector, and creating new employment positions to reduce migration to urban), international relations (developing new projects toward internationalizing to collaborate with other cooperatives), planning (making long-term strategic plans), and education (training women in rural areas, and obtaining their collaboration in cooperative campaigns, and educating future's cooperative managers).
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Mokoena, Alice, and Gregory Alexander. "A REFLECTION ON GENDER ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCES’ RURAL SCHOOL SETTINGS OF MULTICULTURAL SOUTH AFRICA." In International Conference on Education and New Developments. inScience Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36315/2021end033.
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The participation of learners in science is important to a country’s socio-economic development impediments, therefore, the argument is that the girl learner should be increasingly encouraged to perform well in STEM related subjects (STATS SA). UNESCO indicates 35% women representative in STEM as students in higher education globally, whilst less than 40% of South Africa’s scientists, engineers and technologists are women. This situation also relates to the South African education system, particularly in rural schools where girl learners are outperformed by boy learners in STEM, especially, in subjects such as Life Sciences and Physical Sciences. The purpose of this reflective paper is to ascertain the factors prohibiting excellent achievement of females in sciences in rural high schools of South Africa. The data has been gathered from numerous documents such as national and provincial analysis of result, examination and assessment directorate analysis and the district statistics in solidifying our investigation as couched by document analysis. Based on our observations and experiences of the conditions prevailing in rural high schools and less participation of female learner access in STEM, suggestions are put forth as to how their performance can be improved. The investment thereof in the body of knowledge will be to fulfil the concern not only of the country but the world at large when the number of female participants increase in STEM.