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Relevant bibliographies by topics / Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries

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Academic literature on the topic 'Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries"

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Crawford, Nancy, and Helen M. Devries. "Relationship between Role Perception and Well-Being in Married Female Missionaries." Journal of Psychology and Theology 33, no. 3 (September 2005): 187–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164710503300304.

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Although women play a significant role in world missions, few studies have been done to ascertain what factors enhance their effectiveness and sense of well-being. This study surveyed 153 married female missionaries to explore how they perceive their overall well-being and missionary role, and whether their perception of their role is related to their sense of well-being. Unexpectedly, responses indicated a need to modify Bowers (1984) Classification of Married Women Missionaries' Roles from four categories into two: “direct worker” or “support worker.” In an analysis of the data using this new classification Direct Workers were found to have a lower level of emotional distress than Support Workers. Additionally, participants' answers to open-ended questions indicated a moderate level of relevance of role issues in their lives as missionaries. Implications of these findings for enhancing married female missionary's well-being and for future research using this new classification are discussed.

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Gardner, Laura Mae, Betsy A. Barber, and Miriam E. Kellogg. "Homosexuality in Women: Considerations for Evangelical Missionary Recruitment, Missions Administration, and Clinical Intervention." Journal of Psychology and Theology 21, no. 1 (March 1993): 26–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164719302100104.

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Evangelical mission organizations are dealing increasingly with in-service female missionaries or with female missionary applicants who present with a variety of homosexual experiences and orientations. Because missions is a character profession and missionaries are religious ministers as well as professional persons, homosexual behavior requires an organizational response. This article discusses causes of homosexual orientation from a developmental perspective. Implications of this perspective are explored, with a continuum of homosexual behavior presented, accompanied by suggested administrative approaches.

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Reeves-Ellington, Barbara. "Women, Protestant Missions, and American Cultural Expansion, 1800 to 1938: A Historiographical Sketch." Social Sciences and Missions 24, no. 2-3 (2011): 190–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187489411x587070.

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AbstractOver the past forty years, historians' descriptions of American women missionaries have ranged from martyrs to cultural imperialists to social activists engaged with real people around the world to promote the welfare of women and children. New transnational approaches to the study of American missions abroad demonstrate that women missionaries were not a stock homogeneous group but a diverse group of individuals engaged in complex encounters with an equally diverse group of people in multiple settings. As scholars have highlighted the contributions of women missionaries to the projection of American Protestantism across the globe, they have increasingly recognized the importance of the cross-cultural connections that have given new meanings to the Protestant messages in local environments. This essay reviews the scholarship of the last forty years and indicates new avenues of research on American Protestant women in mission.

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Paddle, Sarah. "“To Save the Women of China from Fear, Opium and Bound Feet”: Australian Women Missionaries in Early Twentieth-Century China." Itinerario 34, no. 3 (December 2010): 67–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115310000690.

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This article explores the experiences of Western women missionaries in a faith mission and their relationships with the women and children of China in the early years of the twentieth century. In a period of twenty years of unprecedented social and political revolution missionaries were forced to reconceptualise their work against a changing discourse of Chinese womanhood. In this context, emerging models of the Chinese New Woman and the New Girl challenged older mission constructions of gender. The Chinese reformation also provided missionaries with troubling reflections on their own roles as independent young women, against debates about modern women at home, and the emerging rights of white women as newly enfranchised citizens in the new nation of Australia.

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Jones, Christopher Cannon. "“A verry poor place for our doctrine”: Religion and Race in the 1853 Mormon Mission to Jamaica." Religion and American Culture 31, no. 2 (2021): 262–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rac.2021.9.

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ABSTRACTThis article examines the first Mormon mission to Jamaica in January 1853. The missionaries, facing opposition from both black and white Jamaicans, returned to the United States after only a month on the island, having made only four converts. Latter-day Saints did not return to Jamaica for another 125 years. Drawing on the missionaries’ personal papers, church archives, local newspaper reports, and governmental records, I argue that the 1853 mission played a crucial role in shaping nineteenth-century Mormonism's racial theology, including the “temple and priesthood ban” that restricted priesthood ordination and temple worship for black men and women. While historians have rightly noted the role twentieth-century missions to regions of the African Diaspora played in ending the ban, studies of the racial restriction's early scope have been discussed in almost exclusively American contexts. The mission to Jamaica, precisely because of its failure, helped shape the ban's implementation and theological justifications. Failing to make any inroads, the elders concluded that both Jamaica and its inhabitants were cursed and not worthy of the missionaries’ time, which anticipated later decisions to prioritize preaching to whites and to scale back and ultimately abandon efforts to proselytize people of African descent.

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McCoy, Genevieve. "The Women of the ABCFM Oregon Mission and the Conflicted Language of Calvinism." Church History 64, no. 1 (March 1995): 62–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3168657.

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Among the books Oregon missionaries Elkanah and Mary Walker kept in their mission home at Tshimakain was a Bible in which was written a quotation attributed to Martin Luther: “Men are never more unfit for the sacrament, than when they think themselves most fit—and never more fit and prepared for duty than when most humbld ‘sic’ and ashamed in a sense of their own unfitness.” Fitness founded in unfitness, ability based on inability, and autonomy grounded in dependence were qualities that the Walker' sponsor, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), encouraged in its emissaries. The country's first foreign missionary program was established in 1810 by a small group of New Divinity ministers. Dominating the rural pulpits in New England and New York during the Second Great Awakening, New Divinity preachers aimed to legitimate their conception of revival and conversion by appealing to the earlier revival theology of Jonathan Edwards. In the process, they insisted that predestination and free grace did not violate human free will and moral responsibility. Based on these convictions antebellum ABCFM missionaries, including the Oregon group, learned to assess their own spiritual condition and calling. However, the internal conflicts prompted by New Divinity understandings of the conversion experience alternatively produced debilitating and vitalizing effects that continued to trouble these women and men throughout their missionary careers. In effect, the vocation of the missionaries of the Whitman-Spalding mission proceeded from an uncommonly heroic effort to achieve a salvation that could not be guaranteed by their own theology. Moreover, contemporary clashing views regarding the nature and social role of women became intertwined with this disabling discourse. This, in turn, limited the Oregon women's conception of themselves and their capacities as missionaries.

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Santiago-Vendrell, Angel. "Give Them Christ: Native Agency in the Evangelization of Puerto Rico, 1900 to 1917." Religions 12, no. 3 (March 17, 2021): 196. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12030196.

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The scholarship on the history of Protestant missions to Puerto Rico after the Spanish American War of 1898 emphasizes the Americanizing tendencies of the missionaries in the construction of the new Puerto Rican. There is no doubt that the main missionary motif during the 1890s was indeed civilization. Even though the Americanizing motif was part of the evangelistic efforts of some missionaries, new evidence shows that a minority of missionaries, among them Presbyterians James A. McAllister and Judson Underwood, had a clear vision of indigenization/contextualization for the emerging church based on language (Spanish) and culture (Puerto Rican). The spread of Christianity was successful not only because of the missionaries but also because native agents took up the task of evangelizing their own people; they were not passive spectators but active agents translating and processing the message of the gospel to fulfill their own people’s needs based on their own individual cultural assumptions. This article problematizes the past divisions of such evangelizing activities between the history of Christianity, mission history, and theology by analyzing the native ministries of Adela Sousa (a Bible woman) and Miguel Martinez in light of the teachings of the American missionaries. The investigation claims that because of Puerto Rican agents’ roles in the process of evangelization, a new fusion between the history of Christianity, mission history, and theology emerged as soon as new converts embraced and began to preach the gospel.

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Dries, Angelyn. "U.S. Catholic Women and Mission: Integral or Auxiliary?" Missiology: An International Review 33, no. 3 (July 2005): 301–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182960503300304.

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Since at least the 1990 encyclical Redemptoris Missio, Roman Catholic teaching has endorsed a multi-faceted mission platform, thus giving official recognition to the work of Catholic women missionaries, who were formerly referred to as “auxiliaries.” A look at women's experiences in two recent mission gatherings and examples from mission economics, companioning, and martyrdom illustrate both the contribution Catholic women made to a holistic approach to mission and the lingering nineteenth century themes of domesticity and “woman's work for women” as reshaped by U.S. Catholic women missionaries today.

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Småberg, Maria. "Mission and Cosmopolitan Mothering." Social Sciences and Missions 30, no. 1-2 (2017): 44–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18748945-03001007.

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This article discusses and analyzes mothering that crosses boundaries of care in spite of differences of nationality, culture and religion. Swedish missionary Alma Johansson was one of a remarkable number of women missionaries who volunteered as relief workers during the Armenian refugee crisis. These women missionaries were often seen as mothers who were ‘saving a whole generation’. The article shows how Johansson acted as an external mother and created transnational bonds of solidarity between Swedish and Armenian mothers. The close relationships became a foundation for Armenian children and women to help themselves. However, in this mothering were also ambivalences.

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BEBBINGTON, DAVID W. "The Mid-Victorian Revolution in Wesleyan Methodist Home Mission." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 70, no. 1 (December 17, 2018): 77–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046917001816.

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Wesleyan Methodists in Victorian Britain are supposed to have been hampered by traditional methods of mission. From the 1850s onwards, however, they launched a strategy of appointing home missionary ministers. Although Wesleyans adopted no new theology, left structures unchanged and still relied on wealthy laymen, they developed fresh work in cities, employed paid lay agents, used women more and recruited children as fundraisers. Organised missions, temperance activity and military chaplaincies bolstered their impact. District Missionaries and Connexional Evangelists were appointed and, in opposition to ritualist clergy, Wesleyans increasingly saw themselves as Nonconformists. They experienced a quiet revolution in home mission.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries"

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Durfey, Rebecca K. "Receptivity to women missionaries' ministry experiences among Muslims." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1999. http://www.tren.com.

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Pass, Andrea Rose. "British women missionaries in India, c.1917-1950." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2011. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:4777425f-65ef-4515-8bfe-979bf7400c08.

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Although by 1900, over 60% of the British missionary workforce in South Asia was female, women’s role in mission has often been overlooked. This thesis focuses upon women of the two leading Anglican societies – the high-Church Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) and the evangelical Church Missionary Society (CMS) – during a particularly underexplored and eventful period in mission history. It uses primary material from the archives of SPG at Rhodes House, Oxford, CMS at the University of Birmingham, St Stephen’s Community, Delhi, and the United Theological College, Bangalore, to extend previous research on the beginnings of women’s service in the late-nineteenth century, exploring the ways in which women missionaries responded to unprecedented upheaval in Britain, India, and the worldwide Anglican Communion in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s. In so doing, it contributes to multiple overlapping historiographies: not simply to the history of Church and mission, but also to that of gender, the British Empire, Indian nationalism, and decolonisation. Women missionaries were products of the expansion of female education, professional opportunities, and philanthropic activity in late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century Britain. Their vocation was tested by living conditions in India, as well as by contradictory calls to marriage, career advancement, familial duties, or the Religious Life. Their educational, medical, and evangelistic work altered considerably between 1917 and 1950 owing to ‘Indianisation’ and ‘Diocesanisation,’ which sought to establish a self-governing ‘native’ Church. Women’s absorption in local affairs meant they were usually uninterested in imperial, nationalist, and Anglican politics, and sometimes became estranged from the home Church. Their service was far more than an attempt to ‘colonise’ Indian hearts and minds and propagate Western ideology. In reality, women missionaries’ engagement with India and Indians had a far more profound impact upon them than upon the Indians they came to serve.

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Howells, Kendi J. "Answering the cry of the city women in urban mission /." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1996. http://www.tren.com.

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McMeley, Mark. "Apostles of civilization : American schoolteachers and missionaries in Argentina, 1869-1884 /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2000. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p9974661.

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Lennon, Sarah Marcia. "At the edge of two worlds Mary Slessor and gender roles in Scottish African missions /." Lynchburg, Va. : Liberty University, 2010. http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu.

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Lim, Audrey Oksoon. "A study of the need for care of Korean single female missionaries on the mission field." Deerfield, IL : Trinity International University, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.2986/tren.006-1630.

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Dzubinski, Leanne Beaton Mason. "Work practices of missionary women." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN) Access this title online Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 2007. http://www.tren.com.

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Longenecker, Carol L. "Progressivism and the mission field Church of the Brethren women missionaries in Shanxi, China, 1908-1951 /." Connect to this title online, 2007. http://etd.lib.clemson.edu/documents/1181668150/.

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Scarborough, Mirjam Rahel. "Called to mission : Mennonite women missionaries in Central Africa in the second half of the twentieth century." Doctoral thesis, University of Cape Town, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/9013.

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Includes bibliographical references (leaves 195-198).
This thesis is an investigation of the "sense of call" as a potential support factor for Mennonite women missionaries from North America based in Central Africa during the latter half of the twentieth century. The investigation is conducted in two main parts. In the first we investigate the theological-historical distinctives of the Anabaptist/Mennonite tradition; in the second part, through a case study, we examine how a select number of women missionaries interpreted their call in relation to their heritage, how their sense of call functioned as a support factor or otherwise, and whether this was determined in any significant way by the Anabaptist/Mennonite tradition. Central to the study is a pastoral concern for women missionaries as women whose missionary role has placed special burdens on them in situations of cultural dislocation.

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au, Longw@iinet net, and Alison Longworth. "Was it worthwhile? : an historical analysis of five women missionaries and their encounters with the Nyungar people of south-west Australia." Murdoch University, 2005. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20060809.94516.

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Was it worthwhile? The thesis asks this question of the life and work of female faith missionaries who served in Western Australia with the Australian Aborigines Mission and/or the United Aborigines Mission, during the twentieth century. In 1902, the New South Wales Aborigines Mission adopted faith mission principles based on those of the China Inland Mission founded in 1865. The mission expanded into Western Australia in 1908 and changed its name to the Australian Aborigines Mission. From 1929, it was known as the United Aborigines Mission. The research began with a historiography of the China Inland Mission and the United Aborigines Mission and its antecedents. The analysis of the principles of these two missions identified that some characteristics of a faith mission were present in the New South Wales Aborigines Mission from the beginning and others were never adopted. It established that from 1902, the New South Wales Aborigines Mission upheld the faith principles of trusting God to provide physical needs, not soliciting for funds and not entering into debt. Because most faith missionaries were female, the historiography proceeded to examine texts on women missionaries, including recent work by Australian writers. This recognised that issues of gender, race and class were present within both mission cultures. Five case studies were chosen to cover a period from 1912 when Bertha Telfer arrived in Western Australia until the retirement of Mary Jones in 1971. Using written and oral source material from Indigenous and non-Indigenous perspectives, the research studied the work of five female faith missionaries in south-west Australia: Bertha Telfer/Alcorn, Ethel Hamer/Fryer, Hope Malcolm/Wright, Mary Jones and Melvina Langley/Rowley, with a focus on issues of Evangelicalism, race, gender and class. Preliminary investigation of the women recognized that while only one had professional training and two received missionary training, membership of the interdenominational Christian Endeavour youth movement was a formative influence on all these female missionaries. An investigation into the principles of that organisation, founded in North America in 1881, established it was influenced by the 1858-59 Revival within Evangelicalism in England and North America and it placed a strong emphasis on personal conversion and a commitment to mission. Christian Endeavour spread to Australia by 1883 and was found to have provided limited leadership opportunities to women. The research tracked the experience of the female faith missionaries over six decades of living by faith among the Nyungar people and discovered a lack of identification with Indigenous culture that had its roots in a widely held belief in the superiority of western culture. Associated with this was the Evangelical belief in personal conversion that did not address cross-cultural issues. The UAM identification with the rise of fundamentalism from the 1920s coincided with diminished leadership opportunities for women at a time when women were gaining more choices in the wider Australian community. The thesis concludes that the role of faith missionary was costly to women in terms of their health and wellbeing. In the context of oppressive government policies towards Indigenous Australians, the poverty and marginalisation experienced by the women, when combined with compassion, created solidarity with Nyungar people. In some cases, this reduced the barriers of race and gender and resulted in the conversion of some Nyungar people, contributing to the formation of an Indigenous and Evangelical church. These findings are significant because they point to new understanding of mission, conversion and Aboriginal-missionary relations and cultures and of the role played by female faith missionaries in the shared mission history of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Western Australians.

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Books on the topic "Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries"

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Zwiep, Mary. Pilgrim path: The first company of women missionaries to Hawaii. Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.

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2

Tucker, Ruth A. Guardians of the great commission: Thestory of women in modern missions. Grand Rapids, Mich: Academie Books, 1988.

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Civilizing habits: Women missionaries and the revival of French empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

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Guardians of the great commission: The story of women in modern missions. Grand Rapids, Mich: Academie Books, 1988.

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Kubera, Ursula. Frauen in der Missionierung Sambias: "ich will ein Beweis für meine Religion sein". Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1998.

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Maurer, Irene. Crossing three continents with Christ: The missionary life of Irene Maurer. Shoals, Indiana: Evangelistic Faith Missions, 2009.

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Wagner, Elisabeth. Bei uns ist alles ganz anders: Handbuch für Ehefrauen in der Mission. Bonn: Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, 1995.

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American women in mission: A social history of their thought and practice. Macon, Ga: Mercer University Press, 1996.

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Shatford, Allan Pearson. The four Marys: A study in missions. [Toronto?]: Woman's Auxiliary to the M.S.C.C., 1995.

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Frauen mit Mission: Deutsche Missionarinnen in China (1891-1914). Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2010.

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Book chapters on the topic "Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries"

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Cooper, Tamara. "Missionaries and Chinese women." In Colonialism, China and the Chinese, 171–83. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2019. | Series: Empires in perspective: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429423925-11.

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Hirono, Miwa. "Evangelism and Its Unintended Consequences: Christian Missionaries in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries." In Civilizing Missions, 73–95. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230616493_4.

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Chilcote, Paul W., and Ulrike Schuler. "Methodist women missionaries in Bulgaria and Italy." In Women Pioneers in Continental European Methodism, 1869–1939, 83–100. New York : Routledge, 2018. | Series: Routledge Methodist studies series: Routledge, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315207926-6.

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Gill, Sean. "Heroines of Missionary Adventure: The Portrayal of Victorian Women Missionaries in Popular Fiction and Biography." In Women of Faith in Victorian Culture, 172–85. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-26749-1_13.

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"Female missionaries and moral authority." In Women, Mission and Church in Uganda, 83–108. New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Routledge studies in modern British history ; v 16: Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315392745-5.

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Skar, Sarah Lund. "Catholic Missionaries and Andean Women: Mismatching Views on Gender and Creation." In Women and Missions: Past and Present, 229–50. Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003135128-14.

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Cunich, Peter. "Deaconesses in the South China Missions of the Church Missionary Society (CMS), 1922–1951." In Christian Women in Chinese Society, edited by Wai Ching Angela Wong and Patricia P. K. Chiu, 85–106. Hong Kong University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5790/hongkong/9789888455928.003.0005.

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The ancient Christian order of deaconess, reintroduced into the northern European churches from the 1830s, had grown to include nearly 60,000 women around the world by the 1950s. The Church of England set aside its first deaconess in 1862, but the potential benefits of deploying deaconesses in the southern China missions was not appreciated so quickly by the Church Missionary Society. The Fukien mission ordained the first six deaconesses for southern China in 1922, and another three were ordained in the Kwangsi-Hunan diocese in 1932, but these were all European women. Seven Chinese deaconesses were ultimately ordained in Fukien before 1942, but the only other mission field where the female diaconate rose to prominence was Hong Kong, where Florence Li Tim-oi’s ordination as a deaconess in 1941 led to her controversial ordination to the priesthood in 1944. This essay examines the slow growth of the deaconess movement in the CMS south China missions up to 1950 and evaluates the achievements of these women before the closure of China to Western missionaries. It also suggests some reasons why the widespread hopes that the female diaconate would provide an ‘enlarged sphere of service’ for women missionaries in south China ultimately proved elusive.

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Luria, Keith P. "Narrating women’s Catholic conversions in seventeenth-century Vietnam." In Conversions. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719099151.003.0010.

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This chapter examines the conversion of seventeenth-century Vietnamese women to Catholicism and the narration of their conversions in the accounts of European missionaries. In Annam (as early-modern Europeans called the two polities Tonkin and Cochinchina), missionaries from the Jesuit order and from the French Missions Étrangères de Paris converted tens of thousands of women and men during the seventeenth century and composed narratives of their most notable converts. In the accounts women stand out for two reasons: a number were from high ranking court families, including members of the royal families, and a number of the lower-ranking women converts suffered from demonic possession. The most spectacular conversion cases concerned women spirit-mediums, who played an important role in Annamese religious observances as oracles. The missionaries described them as possessed by demons. Once converted, these former spirit-mediums became miracle workers, and thus fit into another category recognizable to European readers. But the Catholic Reformation had ambivalent feelings at best about such women playing an important role in the evangelization campaign. Thus missionaries seeking credibility and narrating conversions by working with what Annamese culture offered them stretched the limits of what was acceptable to their audience at home.

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Long, Kathryn T. "The Next Steps." In God in the Rainforest, 64–79. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190608989.003.0005.

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This chapter explores the tension and competition between various missionaries and missions agencies in Ecuador as each group tried to position itself to contact the Waorani. Rachel Saint and Elisabeth Elliot reconciled for the first of many times before Rachel and Dayomæ traveled to the US for This Is Your Life and speaking engagements, a trip that lasted a year. Dayomæ converted to Christianity and was baptized by V. Raymond Edman, president of Wheaton College, where three of the missionaries killed by the Waorani had attended. In Ecuador the missions first involved in the Waorani project continued efforts to make contact. Mission Aviation Fellowship resumed flights over Wao clearings. Brethren missionary Wilfred Tidmarsh ventured near Waorani territory. In November 1957 two Waorani women, Mintaca and Mæncamo, came out of the rainforest. Elisabeth Elliot befriended them, brought them to live with her, and sought to learn the Wao language.

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Sasaki, Motoe. "New Women in the Civilizing Mission." In Redemption and Revolution. Cornell University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9780801451393.003.0002.

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This chapter explores how the notion of civilization affected historical consciousness in the U.S. and China, and was also involved in the creation of the subjectivities of the New Woman: on the U.S. side as a benevolent female emancipator by a country at the vanguard of historical progress in the world, and in China as a self-sufficient modern female in a country in imminent danger of falling into a state of wangguo. In addition, the chapter discusses the experiences of the first generation of American New Women missionaries who sailed to China to be part of the civilizing mission otherwise known as the U.S. foreign mission movement. They took issue with the direction of Chinese xin nüxing and with the radical activism among young Chinese women in the 1911 Revolution that overturned the Qing dynasty. By appropriating popularized versions of evolutionary theories, these missionaries constructed their legitimacy as teachers of Chinese women on the basis of comparisons with them, and they created educational projects and enterprises for Chinese women designed to create a more acceptable kind of New Woman that fell in line with mainstream views of American missionary women.

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