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Journal articles on the topic 'Women Missions and Missionaries Missionaries'
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1
Crawford, Nancy, and Helen M. Devries. "Relationship between Role Perception and Well-Being in Married Female Missionaries." Journal of Psychology and Theology 33, no. 3 (September 2005): 187–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164710503300304.
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Although women play a significant role in world missions, few studies have been done to ascertain what factors enhance their effectiveness and sense of well-being. This study surveyed 153 married female missionaries to explore how they perceive their overall well-being and missionary role, and whether their perception of their role is related to their sense of well-being. Unexpectedly, responses indicated a need to modify Bowers (1984) Classification of Married Women Missionaries' Roles from four categories into two: “direct worker” or “support worker.” In an analysis of the data using this new classification Direct Workers were found to have a lower level of emotional distress than Support Workers. Additionally, participants' answers to open-ended questions indicated a moderate level of relevance of role issues in their lives as missionaries. Implications of these findings for enhancing married female missionary's well-being and for future research using this new classification are discussed.
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Gardner, Laura Mae, Betsy A. Barber, and Miriam E. Kellogg. "Homosexuality in Women: Considerations for Evangelical Missionary Recruitment, Missions Administration, and Clinical Intervention." Journal of Psychology and Theology 21, no. 1 (March 1993): 26–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164719302100104.
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Evangelical mission organizations are dealing increasingly with in-service female missionaries or with female missionary applicants who present with a variety of homosexual experiences and orientations. Because missions is a character profession and missionaries are religious ministers as well as professional persons, homosexual behavior requires an organizational response. This article discusses causes of homosexual orientation from a developmental perspective. Implications of this perspective are explored, with a continuum of homosexual behavior presented, accompanied by suggested administrative approaches.
3
Reeves-Ellington, Barbara. "Women, Protestant Missions, and American Cultural Expansion, 1800 to 1938: A Historiographical Sketch." Social Sciences and Missions 24, no. 2-3 (2011): 190–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187489411x587070.
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AbstractOver the past forty years, historians' descriptions of American women missionaries have ranged from martyrs to cultural imperialists to social activists engaged with real people around the world to promote the welfare of women and children. New transnational approaches to the study of American missions abroad demonstrate that women missionaries were not a stock homogeneous group but a diverse group of individuals engaged in complex encounters with an equally diverse group of people in multiple settings. As scholars have highlighted the contributions of women missionaries to the projection of American Protestantism across the globe, they have increasingly recognized the importance of the cross-cultural connections that have given new meanings to the Protestant messages in local environments. This essay reviews the scholarship of the last forty years and indicates new avenues of research on American Protestant women in mission.
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Paddle, Sarah. "“To Save the Women of China from Fear, Opium and Bound Feet”: Australian Women Missionaries in Early Twentieth-Century China." Itinerario 34, no. 3 (December 2010): 67–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115310000690.
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This article explores the experiences of Western women missionaries in a faith mission and their relationships with the women and children of China in the early years of the twentieth century. In a period of twenty years of unprecedented social and political revolution missionaries were forced to reconceptualise their work against a changing discourse of Chinese womanhood. In this context, emerging models of the Chinese New Woman and the New Girl challenged older mission constructions of gender. The Chinese reformation also provided missionaries with troubling reflections on their own roles as independent young women, against debates about modern women at home, and the emerging rights of white women as newly enfranchised citizens in the new nation of Australia.
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Jones, Christopher Cannon. "“A verry poor place for our doctrine”: Religion and Race in the 1853 Mormon Mission to Jamaica." Religion and American Culture 31, no. 2 (2021): 262–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rac.2021.9.
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ABSTRACTThis article examines the first Mormon mission to Jamaica in January 1853. The missionaries, facing opposition from both black and white Jamaicans, returned to the United States after only a month on the island, having made only four converts. Latter-day Saints did not return to Jamaica for another 125 years. Drawing on the missionaries’ personal papers, church archives, local newspaper reports, and governmental records, I argue that the 1853 mission played a crucial role in shaping nineteenth-century Mormonism's racial theology, including the “temple and priesthood ban” that restricted priesthood ordination and temple worship for black men and women. While historians have rightly noted the role twentieth-century missions to regions of the African Diaspora played in ending the ban, studies of the racial restriction's early scope have been discussed in almost exclusively American contexts. The mission to Jamaica, precisely because of its failure, helped shape the ban's implementation and theological justifications. Failing to make any inroads, the elders concluded that both Jamaica and its inhabitants were cursed and not worthy of the missionaries’ time, which anticipated later decisions to prioritize preaching to whites and to scale back and ultimately abandon efforts to proselytize people of African descent.
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McCoy, Genevieve. "The Women of the ABCFM Oregon Mission and the Conflicted Language of Calvinism." Church History 64, no. 1 (March 1995): 62–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3168657.
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Among the books Oregon missionaries Elkanah and Mary Walker kept in their mission home at Tshimakain was a Bible in which was written a quotation attributed to Martin Luther: “Men are never more unfit for the sacrament, than when they think themselves most fit—and never more fit and prepared for duty than when most humbld ‘sic’ and ashamed in a sense of their own unfitness.” Fitness founded in unfitness, ability based on inability, and autonomy grounded in dependence were qualities that the Walker' sponsor, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), encouraged in its emissaries. The country's first foreign missionary program was established in 1810 by a small group of New Divinity ministers. Dominating the rural pulpits in New England and New York during the Second Great Awakening, New Divinity preachers aimed to legitimate their conception of revival and conversion by appealing to the earlier revival theology of Jonathan Edwards. In the process, they insisted that predestination and free grace did not violate human free will and moral responsibility. Based on these convictions antebellum ABCFM missionaries, including the Oregon group, learned to assess their own spiritual condition and calling. However, the internal conflicts prompted by New Divinity understandings of the conversion experience alternatively produced debilitating and vitalizing effects that continued to trouble these women and men throughout their missionary careers. In effect, the vocation of the missionaries of the Whitman-Spalding mission proceeded from an uncommonly heroic effort to achieve a salvation that could not be guaranteed by their own theology. Moreover, contemporary clashing views regarding the nature and social role of women became intertwined with this disabling discourse. This, in turn, limited the Oregon women's conception of themselves and their capacities as missionaries.
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Santiago-Vendrell, Angel. "Give Them Christ: Native Agency in the Evangelization of Puerto Rico, 1900 to 1917." Religions 12, no. 3 (March 17, 2021): 196. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12030196.
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The scholarship on the history of Protestant missions to Puerto Rico after the Spanish American War of 1898 emphasizes the Americanizing tendencies of the missionaries in the construction of the new Puerto Rican. There is no doubt that the main missionary motif during the 1890s was indeed civilization. Even though the Americanizing motif was part of the evangelistic efforts of some missionaries, new evidence shows that a minority of missionaries, among them Presbyterians James A. McAllister and Judson Underwood, had a clear vision of indigenization/contextualization for the emerging church based on language (Spanish) and culture (Puerto Rican). The spread of Christianity was successful not only because of the missionaries but also because native agents took up the task of evangelizing their own people; they were not passive spectators but active agents translating and processing the message of the gospel to fulfill their own people’s needs based on their own individual cultural assumptions. This article problematizes the past divisions of such evangelizing activities between the history of Christianity, mission history, and theology by analyzing the native ministries of Adela Sousa (a Bible woman) and Miguel Martinez in light of the teachings of the American missionaries. The investigation claims that because of Puerto Rican agents’ roles in the process of evangelization, a new fusion between the history of Christianity, mission history, and theology emerged as soon as new converts embraced and began to preach the gospel.
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Dries, Angelyn. "U.S. Catholic Women and Mission: Integral or Auxiliary?" Missiology: An International Review 33, no. 3 (July 2005): 301–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182960503300304.
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Since at least the 1990 encyclical Redemptoris Missio, Roman Catholic teaching has endorsed a multi-faceted mission platform, thus giving official recognition to the work of Catholic women missionaries, who were formerly referred to as “auxiliaries.” A look at women's experiences in two recent mission gatherings and examples from mission economics, companioning, and martyrdom illustrate both the contribution Catholic women made to a holistic approach to mission and the lingering nineteenth century themes of domesticity and “woman's work for women” as reshaped by U.S. Catholic women missionaries today.
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Småberg, Maria. "Mission and Cosmopolitan Mothering." Social Sciences and Missions 30, no. 1-2 (2017): 44–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18748945-03001007.
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This article discusses and analyzes mothering that crosses boundaries of care in spite of differences of nationality, culture and religion. Swedish missionary Alma Johansson was one of a remarkable number of women missionaries who volunteered as relief workers during the Armenian refugee crisis. These women missionaries were often seen as mothers who were ‘saving a whole generation’. The article shows how Johansson acted as an external mother and created transnational bonds of solidarity between Swedish and Armenian mothers. The close relationships became a foundation for Armenian children and women to help themselves. However, in this mothering were also ambivalences.
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BEBBINGTON, DAVID W. "The Mid-Victorian Revolution in Wesleyan Methodist Home Mission." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 70, no. 1 (December 17, 2018): 77–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046917001816.
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Wesleyan Methodists in Victorian Britain are supposed to have been hampered by traditional methods of mission. From the 1850s onwards, however, they launched a strategy of appointing home missionary ministers. Although Wesleyans adopted no new theology, left structures unchanged and still relied on wealthy laymen, they developed fresh work in cities, employed paid lay agents, used women more and recruited children as fundraisers. Organised missions, temperance activity and military chaplaincies bolstered their impact. District Missionaries and Connexional Evangelists were appointed and, in opposition to ritualist clergy, Wesleyans increasingly saw themselves as Nonconformists. They experienced a quiet revolution in home mission.
11
Steegstra, Marijke. "'A MIGHTY OBSTACLE TO THE GOSPEL': BASEL MISSIONARIES, KROBO WOMEN, AND CONFLICTING IDEAS OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY." Journal of Religion in Africa 32, no. 2 (2002): 200–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006602320292915.
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AbstractTo this day, the Krobo people in highly Christianised Southern Ghana celebrate their annual girls' initiation rites (dipo). However, the rites have been a much contested matter ever since the arrival of the Basel missionaries, who strongly objected to dipo. In this paper, I investigate the 19th-century encounter between the Basel missionaries and the Krobo by focusing on dipo. An ethno-historical analysis of dipo provides a valuable entry point into investigating the interaction of the mission with Krobo people, and issues of mission, gender, and identity. The striking intersection between 'traditional' Krobo and the Basel missionaries' concerns was women's sexuality and morality. Their conflicting ideas about gender and sexuality are the key to answering the question why one of the most lingering conflicts originating from missionary attempts to redefine the life-patterns of the Krobo revolves around the dipo rites.
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CEVIK, GÜLEN. "American Missionaries and the Harem: Cultural Exchanges behind the Scenes." Journal of American Studies 45, no. 3 (March 28, 2011): 463–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021875811000065.
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This article examines the impact on American furniture and clothing styles by women missionaries traveling to Turkey in the Victorian era. Although there has been much discussion of the impact of Western missionaries on Turkey and other parts of Asia, the reciprocal impact on American culture has not been adequately assessed. Missionary work, which started in the 1820s in a modest manner, turned into a systematic and large-scale activity, reaching its climax during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Unlike Western diplomats, whose visits took place in the palaces of Istanbul, far from the realities of everyday life, missionary women had informal contact with ordinary Turkish women. Ottoman Turkish domestic space was highly gendered, so only these missionary women would have had access to authentic Ottoman Turkish interiors and been able to observe them as social spaces. The furniture style and the unique concept of comfort that they observed in Turkey presented an alternative point of view of home life and its organization. After spending years abroad, these women would return to the US to recruit and raise money for their missions by traveling from community to community, often creating interest for their work abroad by presenting examples of material culture. This article will put letters, diaries, travelogues and other contemporary material in the context of American culture of the Victorian era in order to chart the unusual way in which American and Turkish women interacted with each other at this historical moment.
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KRABBENDAM, HANS. "Full Members of the TEAM? Evangelical Women in the European Mission, 1945–1980." Journal of American Studies 51, no. 4 (October 10, 2017): 1095–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021875816001390.
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After World War II, American evangelicals realized that the European religious landscape had been seriously damaged, causing them to begin to include Europe in their mission programs. Their initiatives reversed the established direction of things, changing the pattern of who sent and who received missionary support. The religious aid flowing from the US fell almost entirely within the masculine framing of the American state, which had so recently exerted its influence in Europe in the military, economic, and cultural spheres. This essay explains how, as a result of practical experience and general social change, gender relations in American missions came to embrace greater inclusivity. European evangelicals, in turn, were both empowered by working with the American missionaries and impacted by the American debate over the separation of male and female roles in the mission field.
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Barkman, Linda, and John Barkman. "Supporting indigenous women missionaries An alternative paradigm for mission in the barrios of Tijuana." Missiology: An International Review 48, no. 1 (January 2020): 64–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0091829619893401.
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An alternative paradigm of mission that involves providing support to indigenous missionaries in situ, this case study exemplifies this method in action among the poorest of the poor in Obrero Segundo, a barrio in Tijuana, Mexico. The methodology includes supporting women with educational and/or living expense stipends in order to empower grassroots Christian ministry. Such support of indigenous women missionaries stands in sharp contrast to the two most prevalent mission paradigms in Tijuana, one of which is the “rich” US mission team who oversees long- and short-term missionary projects, and the other is the “successful” Mexican American who returns to Tijuana on weekends to run his church plant. But while there are real benefits in mission based on these paradigms, another paradigm is needed, one that addresses the specific needs and capabilities of the women already doing mission in their own neighborhoods and amongst their own people groups.
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Cooke, Claire. "Capping Power? Clothing and the Female Body in African Methodist Episcopal Mission Photographs." Mission Studies 31, no. 3 (November 19, 2014): 418–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15733831-12341359.
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In this article, I argue that the introduction of a uniform for female converts was a crucial factor in maintaining power dynamics in African Methodist Episcopal missionary work conducted in South Africa between 1900 and 1940. This relationship, I suggest, is epitomized in photographs from the mission field. Through studying the ways missionaries photographed women, I am able to critique how clothing expressed inherent, imbalanced power relations between missionaries and converts. I thus build on existing literature concerning the relationship between clothing and the indigenous female body, through an examination of clothing as a marker of status within the patriarchal mission family construct.
16
White, Ann. "Counting the Cost of Faith. America's Early Female Missionaries." Church History 57, no. 1 (March 1988): 19–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3165900.
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America's first unmarried female missionaries, women who went out to Asia and Africa in the early to middle nineteenth century, chose lives as intense and demanding as any man's. They chose the foreign mission vocation despite the belief, strong in their era, that women should accept the constraints and comforts of their “proper sphere,” the home. To make their decision, these women struggled with two sets of ideas which coexisted in tension: equality of all persons before God, and the ideology of “woman's sphere.” As persons of faith they could respond to God's commands in the same way as men without theological challenge, because equality of all persons before God was a major strand in their Christian tradition. As nineteenth-century women, however, they were asked to accept lowered status and protective restrictions, in keeping with woman's sphere ideology. These women chose to become missionaries, compromising on second-class status and protective restrictions. In their view, the missionary vocation was worth the cost of compromise.
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Grace Chou, Hui-Tzu. "Mormon Missionary Experiences and Subsequent Religiosity among Returned Missionaries in Utah." Social Sciences and Missions 26, no. 2-3 (2013): 199–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18748945-02603005.
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This qualitative research examined Mormon missionary experiences and their impacts on the religiosity of returned missionaries living in Utah. Based on open-ended surveys completed by those who served a mission for the Mormon Church, this research analyzed how missionary experiences increased the religiosity of most missionaries, as well as reasons why some respondents felt their missionary experiences decreased their religious level. This paper also examined the missionary experiences of those who later dropped out of Mormonism – why their missionary experiences failed to strengthen their commitment while they convinced others to join the Mormon Church. This paper found that men and women faced different challenges during their mission, and mission experiences also affected men’s and women’s religiosity differently. In addition, although those who served in Western Europe faced the highest rate of rejection during their mission, they reported higher religious and spiritual levels than their counterparts. The paper concludes with the development of a grounded theory arguing that the impact of the Mormon missionary experiences on missionaries’ subsequent religiosity corresponds to a process of maximizing social acceptance and minimizing social rejections among various social groups.
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Hackel, Steven W. "Native Insurgent Literacy in Colonial California." California History 96, no. 4 (2019): 2–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ch.2019.96.4.2.
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The catastrophe of Spanish colonization for California's indigenous populations has made it easy for historians to overlook the skills that some Indians learned in the missions and the ways in which those who survived the missions used these hard-won skills to resist colonial rule and advance their own interests. One such skill was alphabetic literacy, which a select few California Indians in the missions acquired and used in their own distinctive ways. Focusing on the experiences of a few heretofore obscure yet important individuals, this article briefly compares the experiences with alphabetic literacy of Indian men and women over the first few generations of contact and explores the degree to which literacy provided Indians with the means to serve their communities, reinvent themselves, and challenge missionaries’ expectations.
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Pullin, Naomi. "Sustaining “the Household of Faith”: Female Hospitality in the Early Transatlantic Quaker Community." Journal of Early Modern History 22, no. 1-2 (March 28, 2018): 96–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700658-17-00012.
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Abstract Women occupied a central place in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century transatlantic Quakerism. They acted as prophets, missionaries, authors and spiritual leaders of their communities. Recent scholarship has offered important insights into the unparalleled public roles available to women within the early Quaker community. But little is known about the networks of hospitality that developed across the British Atlantic that made itinerant missionary service possible. The generosity of countless female Quakers to unknown “Friends” remains an underexplored aspect of early Quaker history. Using printed spiritual testimonies and correspondence exchanged between Quaker missionaries and their female hosts, this article shows how ministers were “sustained” during their travels. Active religious service did not have to equate to ministerial work, and networks of female hospitality provided an important accompaniment to the national and transatlantic Quaker mission.
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Killingray, David. "THE BLACK ATLANTIC MISSIONARY MOVEMENT AND AFRICA, 1780s-1920s." Journal of Religion in Africa 33, no. 1 (2003): 3–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006603765626695.
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AbstractOver a period of 150 years African American missionaries sought to spread the Christian Gospel in the 'Black Atlantic' region formed by the Americas, Africa and Britain. Relatively few in number, they have been largely ignored by most historians of mission. As blacks in a world dominated by persistent slavery, ideas of scientific racism and also by colonialism, their lot was rarely a comfortable one. Often called, by a belief in 'divine providence', to the Caribbean and Africa, when employed by white mission agencies they were invariably treated as second-class colleagues. From the late 1870s new African American mission bodies sent men and women to the mission field. However, by the 1920s, black American missionaries were viewed with alarm by the colonial authorities as challenging prevailing racial ideas and they were effectively excluded from most of Africa.
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Waha, Kristen Bergman. "SYNTHESIZING HINDU AND CHRISTIAN ETHICS IN A. MADHAVIAH'S INDIAN ENGLISH NOVELCLARINDA(1915)." Victorian Literature and Culture 46, no. 1 (March 2018): 237–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1060150317000419.
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The novels of Indian writerA. Madhaviah (1872–1925) are deeply ambivalent toward British Protestant missions in the Madras Presidency. The son of a Brahmin family from the Tirunelveli District in what is now the state of Tamil Nadu, Madhaviah had the opportunity to form close intellectual relationships with British missionaries and Indian Christian converts while studying for his B.A. at the Madras Christian College, completing his degree in 1892. Although he remained a Hindu throughout his life, Madhaviah's first English novel,Thillai Govindan(1903), praises some missionaries for their moral characters, naming in particular the Madras Christian College's principal, William Miller (1838–1923); however, the same novel also criticizes other unnamed Madras missionaries for extravagant lifestyles that squandered the money of unsuspecting supporters in Britain (64). Madhaviah's deep commitment to late-nineteenth and early twentieth-century Indian women's reform movements, including widow remarriage, the abolition of child marriage, and women's education, meant that he often agreed with British missionaries championing similar reforms in Indian society. However, his early novels also criticize the proselytizing activities of missionaries, particularly in educational settings. In his Tamil novelPadmavati Carittiram(1898, 1899) and English novelSatyananda(1909), Madhaviah exposes missionary attempts to take advantage of a young pupil's inexperience in an educational setting or to exploit a quarrel between pupil and family members to secure a conversion. Yet in contrast, Madhaviah's final English novel,Clarinda: A Historical Novel(1915), offers perhaps the most positive depiction of an Indian Christian conversion in his fiction. A historical novel that reimagines the life of a renowned eighteenth-century Marathi Brahmin woman convert living in Thanjavur, Madhaviah'sClarindaoffers Christian conversion as a liberating decision for the young Clarinda. Her conversion allows her as a widow to escape the patriarchal control of her abusive husband's family and to contribute to her community as a philanthropist and an early social reformer. While Madhaviah remained critical of certain conversion tactics, which could transgress ethical boundaries, Madhaviah also acknowledged that missionary goals for women's improved lot within society often intersected with his own convictions.
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Turnbull, Stephen. "Diversity or Apostasy? The Case of the Japanese ‘Hidden Christians’." Studies in Church History 32 (1996): 441–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400015552.
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When Christian missionaries returned to Japan in 1859, after having been excluded from that country for over two centuries, they hoped that there might be some possibility of making contact with descendants of Japan’s original evangelized communities, and locating some folk memory of the so-called ‘Christian Century’, which had ended with the expulsion of European priests in 1614, and the persecution of native Christians. None of the newly arrived missionaries, however, had been prepared for the discovery of active secret communities who had maintained the Christian faith as an underground church for seven generations. Yet this was the revelation experienced by Father Bernard Petitjean of the French Société des Missions Étrangères in the porch of the newly consecrated church at Õura in Nagasaki, on 17 March 1865: Urged no doubt by my guardian angel, I went up and opened the door. I had scarce time to say a Pater when three women between fifty and sixty years of age knelt down beside me and said in a low voice, placing their hands upon their hearts: ‘The hearts of all of us here do not differ from yours.’
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Eliyanah, Evi. "THE MISSIONARY WOMEN IN THE INLAND OF AUSTRALIA AND THE AUSTRALIAN INLAND MISSION AS REPRESENTED IN BETH BECKETT’S LIFE MEMOIR." TEFLIN Journal - A publication on the teaching and learning of English 21, no. 2 (August 29, 2015): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v21i2/107-117.
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This article looks at the gender dimension of religious missions administered by the Presbyterian Church in the inland Australia as represented in Beth Beckett’s life memoir written in 1947-1955. It is aimed at obtaining general ideas on the involvement of women, as the wives of missionaries, Focusing on the experience of Beth Beckett, it argues that her position as a wife of a missionary is problematic: on the one hand she did transgress the traditional idea of staying home wife by choosing to travel along with her husband, but at the same time, she was still bound by the domestic side of the job.
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Rich, Jeremy. "My Matrimonial Bureau: Masculine Concerns and Presbyterian Mission Evangelization in the Gabon Estuary, c. 1900-1915." Journal of Religion in Africa 36, no. 2 (2006): 200–223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006606777070669.
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AbstractThis essay examines the reasons why some young Fang men supported Presbyterian missionary Robert Milligan's crusade to establish a Protestant community of converts at the turn of the twentieth century. Milligan presented his work as an example of heroic and muscular Christianity that transformed young Gabonese men. However, his methods of attracting followers appear very similar to those used by local big men: creating kinship networks, providing military support, sharing imported goods and providing access to women for marriage. Fang men and Milligan shared a flexible vocabulary of fatherhood that placed obligations on converts and missionaries alike. Eventually, Milligan's efforts came undone because of problems with other missionaries, but young Fang men continued to turn to missionary patronage, in part to cope with gender tensions and struggles over status.
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Maxton, Esther. "The Contributions of British Female Missionaries and Japanese Bible Women to the Ministry of the Japan Evangelistic Band in the Early 20th Century." Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 35, no. 1 (January 2018): 44–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265378818775256.
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Early 20th century evangelical mission organisations that emerged from the British Holiness Movement prioritised evangelism over social reform. Female missionaries, however, were often engaged in bringing social transformation. Even though women were the major workforce in overseas mission, leadership was always in male hands. This article discusses how even though women in the Japan Evangelistic Band were not in leadership positions, their initiative in social engagement enabled the Mission to participate in spiritual as well as social transformation, and raise a generation of Japanese female leadership.
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Abel, Kerry. "Prophets, Priests and Preachers: Dene Shamans and Christian Missions in the Nineteenth Century." Historical Papers 21, no. 1 (April 26, 2006): 211–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/030954ar.
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Abstract Throughout the nineteenth century, European and Canadian observers recorded instances of “prophets” arising among the Dene in the northwest. These men and women reported having travelled to the land of the spirits or to heaven, where they learned new rules for human behaviour which would bring about a change of circumstances for the better. Missionaries of the Church Missionary Society and particularly the Oblates of Mary Immaculate were concerned about these events and interpreted them in a variety of ways. Anthropologists and historians have considered similar postcontact events in North American Indian societies as “revitalization movements” and “crisis cults.” These concepts are examined and found somewhat misleading when applied to the Dene prophets. Instead, the activities of these prophets are interpreted as manifestations of traditional cultural responses to the various pressures of life in a harsh northern environment.
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Amstutz, John L. "Foursquare Missions: Doing More With Less." Pneuma 16, no. 1 (1994): 63–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157007494x00067.
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Abstract"Around the world with the Foursquare Gospel." With these words Aimee Semple McPherson focused the mission and message of the denomination her ministry spawned. The mission of world evangelization was birthed in the heart of this Canadian woman as a teenager. In 1910 at age 20, she, with her husband Robert Semple, went to China as missionaries. After less than a year of ministry Robert died of malaria and was buried in Hong Kong. Heartbroken, Aimee returned to the U.S., but her vision for world missions remained. God's people must be challenged with a vision for the lost, a vision for reaching those yet unreached. The vision was clear. And the message was equally clear. It was a message about Jesus Christ. This message was dramatically focused for Mrs. McPherson during a citywide evangelistic meeting in Oakland, California in 1922 as she was preaching from Ezekiel 1:10. In the faces of the four living creatures she saw a fourfold picture of Jesus Christ as Savior, Baptizer with the Holy Spirit, Healer and Coming King. This "Foursquare Gospel" was the good news that must be proclaimed around the world1
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Robert, Dana L. "What Happened to the Christian Home? The Missing Component of Mission Theory." Missiology: An International Review 33, no. 3 (July 2005): 325–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182960503300306.
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One of the most important mission theories for the past two centuries has been the idea of the “Christian home.” Historical research, interviews with current missionaries, and studies of Christianity in the non-western world all show that the Christian home remains a central metaphor for how women conceptualize what it means to be a witness for Christ. In this paper, I will discuss why the Christian home remains important for mission practice, examine reasons for its omission from academic discussions of mission theory, look briefly at its history and changing definition, and conclude by urging that the Christian home be a renewed priority in discussions of missionary contextualization for the twenty-first century.
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Lewis, Bonnie Sue. "Male and Female: Created to Be Partners in Mission." Missiology: An International Review 33, no. 3 (July 2005): 313–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182960503300305.
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A growing body of literature focuses on the many contributions of women to the theory and practice of mission. This corrective is long overdue. What perhaps is overlooked in this process is the reminder that within the ‘missio Dei’ is God's intent that mission be carried out in true partnership: male and female together. We can be grateful that that vision was embraced by several early Presbyterian missionaries in Alaska, and it provided a seedbed for today's collegial relations between women and men who together are serving as mission practitioners and professors at most of our Presbyterian and other mainline seminaries.
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Fogleman, Aaron Spencer. "A Moravian Mission and the Origins of Evangelical Protestantism among Slaves in the Carolina Lowcountry." Journal of Early Modern History 21, no. 1-2 (March 23, 2017): 38–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700658-12342529.
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This article investigates the German Moravian slave mission in South Carolina (1738-1740), including its role in beginning evangelical Protestantism among Lowcountry slaves. It documents responses of planters, townspeople, and especially slaves and shows how the mission was connected to the transatlantic evangelical Protestant awakening. Following Wesley’s brief encounter in 1737 and preceding Whitefield’s visit in 1740 and the subsequent slave revival in Port Royal, the Moravians offered sustained contact with the new religious style. Several slaves responded enthusiastically, including a woman named Diana of Port Royal, who played a leadership role, while others defiantly rejected their message as the religion of barbaric masters. Disease, white resistance after the Stono Rebellion, internal problems, et al. forced the mission to close, but its brief history reveals the interests, struggles, hopes, and fears of slaves, planters, and missionaries in the mid-eighteenth century and how they were connected to other Atlantic and global missions.
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Weisenfeld, Judith. "‘Who is Sufficient For These Things?’ Sara G. Stanley and the American Missionary Association, 1864–1868." Church History 60, no. 4 (December 1991): 493–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3169030.
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The literature dealing with those women and men who dedicated themselves to teaching the newly freed slaves in the South during Reconstruction has grown considerably in recent years. From W. E. B. DuBois's Black Reconstruction in America in 1935, with its positive depiction of the role of these teachers through Henry L.ee Swint's 1941 work, The Northern Teacher in the South, with its negative stereotype to more recent works, we now have a body of literature which has begun to examine this group in a more thorough and complex manner.1 The general stereotype which often appears in the literature is of the missionar teacher as a white woman from New England, fresh from the abolitionist movement. While it is true that many teachers fit into this category, there were also many African-American teachers and missionaries, both women and men.2 A good deal of the literature has dealt, at least briefly, with the ways in which African-American men functioned in the context of such organizations as the American Missionary Association (AMA). However, the experience of these men was different from that of African- American women, in part because these men were more likely to be givenadministrative positions in the organizations, either as principals, field agents, or supported missionaries. Most of the women, then, were more likely to remain “in the trenches” as teachers during their tenure with the missionary society.3
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Yoon, Sun Young, Hye Yeon Jeon, and Kyungwha Hong. "A Phenomenological Study on Women Missionaries’ Experiences of Interpersonal Stress in the Mission Field." Korean Journal of Christian Counseling 32, no. 3 (August 31, 2021): 215–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.23909/kjcc.2021.08.32.3.215.
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Wakeman, Carolyn. "Beyond Gentility: The Mission of Women Educators at Yenching." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 14, no. 1-2 (2007): 143–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187656107793645113.
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AbstractAmerican missionaries in the early years of the twentieth century viewed China’s women as a vast resource for conversion and for leadership.“The only college for women in the northern half of China,”proclaims the brochure North China Union Women’s College in 1919.“The only chance of 200,000,000 people to secure a higher education for their daughters; the only institution to which an ancient but newly awakening people can look for highly trained leadership for its womanhood just now in the throes of confusion because of the passing of the old and the imperfect understanding of the new.” Such inspirational rhetoric, reiterated in pamphlets and circular letters intended to open the minds and purses of donors in the United States, hardly hints at the problems faced, during the May Fourth movement and its aftermath, by two dedicated American administrators who struggled to establish, expand, and maintain higher education for China’s women.
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Sterk, Andrea. "“Representing” Mission from Below: Historians as Interpreters and Agents of Christianization." Church History 79, no. 2 (May 18, 2010): 271–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640710000041.
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Discussion of mission in east Roman or Byzantine history has typically focused on imperial ambitions, royal conversions, and a “top-down” approach to Christianization. The Christian emperor, the earthly image of the heavenly king, had been called by God to propagate the faith and civilize the barbarians. Toward this end he sent out emissaries to foreign potentates, and the conversion of the ruler was soon followed by the Christianization of his people. Such narratives largely ignore missionaries “from below,” deemed “accidental” evangelists, and focus instead on imperially sponsored or “professional missionaries.” Several recent studies have added nuance to the traditional picture by devoting increased attention to mission from below or presenting Christianization as a process comprising multiple stages that spanned several centuries. Building on my own previous article on this theme, the present essay will reexamine narratives of unofficial mission on the eastern frontiers, in particular accounts of captive women credited with converting whole kingdoms to the Christian faith. In each case a female ascetic has either been taken prisoner or has lived for some time as a captive in a foreign land just beyond east Roman borders. The woman's steadfast adherence to her pious way of life, performance of apostolic signs, and verbal testimony to faith in Christ move the ruler and his people to accept the Christian God.
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Harrison, Henrietta. "Rethinking Missionaries and Medicine in China: The Miracles of Assunta Pallotta, 1905–2005." Journal of Asian Studies 71, no. 1 (December 30, 2011): 127–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021911811002920.
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This paper uses the cult of Assunta Pallotta, an Italian Catholic nun who died in a north China village in 1905, to critique the existing literature on missionary medicine in China. She was recognized as holy because of the fragrance that accompanied her death, and later the incorrupt state of her body, and her relics were promoted as a source of healing by the Catholic mission hospital, absorbed into local folk medicine, and are still in use today. By focusing on Catholics, not Protestants, and women, not men, the paper suggests similarities between European and Chinese traditional religious and medical cultures and argues that instead of seeing a transfer of European biomedicine to China, we need to think of a single globalized process in which concepts of science and religion, China and the West were framed.
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Chevalier, Laura. "Mamas on Mission: Retracing the Church through the Spiritual Life Writing of Single Female Evangelical Missionaries." Mission Studies 36, no. 2 (July 10, 2019): 289–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15733831-12341653.
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Abstract This article plumbs the spiritual life writing of two twentieth-century single female evangelical missionaries, Lillian Trasher and Dr. Helen Roseveare, for evidence of the church. It rests on concepts of feminine spirituality and the history of women and mission. The historical analysis traces the women’s lives from their early formation through their mission work and looks at six themes of the church on mission that emerged from their writing. It argues that they served as mamas of the church in their contexts by nurturing life through their acts of compassionate care. Their small but deliberate acts of sacrifice and service continue to pose missiological invitations and challenges to the church. Therefore, the article also builds an initial “mama theology” of the church on mission by examining where images in Isaiah and impulses in mission today intersect with the themes in the women’s writing.
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Shemo, Connie. "“‘Her Chinese Attended to Almost Everything’: Relationships of Power in the Hackett Medical College for Women, Guangzhou, China, 1901–1915”." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 24, no. 4 (October 31, 2017): 321–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18765610-02404002.
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This essay uses a 1915 crisis at the American Presbyterian Hackett Medical College for Women in Guangzhou, China as a lens to explore the level of control Chinese women, who were known as “assistants,” exercised at the school. Official literature of the Hackett portrays the American woman missionary physician Dr. Mary Fulton as controlling the college, but in fact its Chinese women graduates largely ran the institution for some years before 1915. Challenging images of American women missionary physicians either as heroines or imperialists, this article describes instead how Chinese women shaped the institution. Placing the Hackett into the broader context of American Presbyterian medical education for Chinese women since 1879, it argues that rather than only interpreting and adapting missionary ideologies, many of the Chinese women medical students in Guangzhou brought their own conceptions of women practicing medicine. In the case of medical education for women in Guangzhou before 1915, American missionaries were partially responding to Chinese traditions and demands. Ultimately, this essay presents a more complex view of cultural transfer in the women’s foreign mission movement of this period.
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Salamone, Frank A. "Nurses, Midwives, and Joans-of-All-Trades." Missiology: An International Review 14, no. 4 (October 1986): 487–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182968601400407.
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The Dominican Sisters have been in Nigeria for over 30 years. While there, they have performed a wide variety of tasks: nursing, midwifery, catechetical instruction, and some jobs not found in any dictionary of professions. Their main job, however, has been to serve as models of modern women. The author asserts that they have been performing post-Vatican II work from pre-Vatican II days. Reasons for this fact are examined, and differences between male and female mission orientations are examined. Salamone's paper is the result of field work and oral histories taken from returned missionaries in Great Bend, Kansas, in July 1985.
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Dunch, Ryan. "Christianizing Confucian Didacticism: Protestant Publications for Women, 1832-1911." NAN NÜ 11, no. 1 (2009): 65–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/138768009x12454916571805.
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AbstractThe printed Protestant missionary engagement with Chinese views of the role and proper conduct of women in society was more complex and ambiguous than scholars have often assumed. Publications targeted at women readers occupied an important place among Protestant missionary periodicals, books, and other printed materials in Chinese during the late Qing. Most publications for women and girls were elementary doctrinal works, catechisms, and devotional texts designed to introduce early readers to Christian belief, and light reading (fictional tracts and biographies) for women's spiritual edification, but there were some more elaborate works as well. After an overview of mission publications for women, this article focuses on two complex texts, one a compendium of practical knowledge and moral guidance for the Chinese Protestant "new woman," Jiaxue jizhen (The Christian home in China) (1897; revised 1909), and the other, a Protestant reworking from 1902 of the Qing dynasty didactic compilation Nü sishu (Women's four books). Together, these two texts give us a more multifaceted picture of how missionaries engaged with Chinese society and the role of women therein.
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Burlingham, Kate. "“Into the Thick of the Fray”." Social Sciences and Missions 28, no. 3-4 (2015): 261–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18748945-02803014.
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This article considers American foreign relations with Angola by exploring the application of so-called adaptive education. Beginning in 1919, black American missionaries at the Congregational Galangue mission station instituted systems of schooling originally developed among freedmen and women in the American South after the Civil War. These pedagogies were specifically designed to educate black Americans without upsetting dominant white structures. When transferred to Angola, these same teachings helped to empower Angolans economically and, ultimately, politically. And yet, they carried with them the unresolved legacy of American slavery. The success of Southern-inspired mission schools among Angolans opens up new questions about the legacies of slavery in US foreign relations with Angola and Africa.
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Pullen, Ann Ellis, and Sarah Ruffing Robbins. "Seeing Mission Work through a Gendered Lens." Social Sciences and Missions 28, no. 3-4 (2015): 288–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18748945-02803012.
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Nellie Arnott, who served as a Congregational mission teacher in the highlands of Angola from 1905–1912, left a rich archival record of her personal experiences, including private diaries and publications for women’s mission magazines. Her writings trace her evolving attitude toward gender roles for missionaries and for Umbundu women whom she taught. Arnott provides a highly personalized and feminized glimpse into a changing central Angola, as Portuguese authority extended into the region. As Arnott left Angola in 1912, her goal was to establish a girls’ boarding school there, but, while home on furlough, she married her long-time fiancé and did not return to Africa. Her candid personal writings allow a window into the development of her own social agency and a glimpse into the lives of Umbundu women (and men) as they negotiated evolving gender roles within an environment shaped by Portuguese political control as well as Congregational mission work.
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Okkenhaug, Inger Marie. "Scandinavian Missionaries, Gender and Armenian Refugees during World War I. Crisis and Reshaping of Vocation." Social Sciences and Missions 23, no. 1 (2010): 63–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187489410x488521.
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AbstractSingle Scandinavian women, professionally trained as nurses or teachers, left for Turkish Armenia with a religious calling to proselytize and work with relief. In practical terms, however, they became part of the Armenian population's fight for survival during war and genocide. Encountering the Ottoman government's war against its Armenian population, Scandinavian mission work was transformed to performing illegal rescue operations. But the missionaries' careers, relief workers and war witnesses in the Ottoman Empire did not only have an effect on their professional lives, the closeness to Armenian society also shaped their private lives. Des femmes scandinaves célibataires, formées comme infirmières ou enseignantes, partirent pour l'Arménie turque en réponse à une vocation religieuse pour aller évangéliser et travailler dans l'aide humanitaire. Pratiquement, toutefois, ces femmes devinrent partie intégrante de la lutte pour la survie de la population arménienne face à la guerre et au génocide. Avec la guerre de l'Empire ottoman contre sa population arménienne, la mission scandinave se mua en une opération illégale de sauvetage. Non seulement la carrière de missionnaires et travailleuses humanitaires de ces femmes ainsi que leur expérience comme témoins de la guerre dans l'Empire ottoman eurent un impact sur leur vie professionnelle, mais leur proximité avec la société arménienne transforma également leur vie privée.
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VENKATACHALAM, MEERA. "BETWEEN THE DEVIL AND THE CROSS: RELIGION, SLAVERY, AND THE MAKING OF THE ANLO-EWE." Journal of African History 53, no. 1 (March 2012): 45–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853712000059.
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ABSTRACTThe idea that mission Christianity played a pivotal role in the creation of modern African ethnic identities has become paradigmatic. Yet, the actual cultural and social processes that facilitated the widespread reception of specific ethnic identities have been under-researched. Suggesting that historians have overemphasised the role of Christian schooling and theology in ethnic identity formation, this article examines how the Anlo people of south-eastern Ghana came, over the twentieth century, to recognise themselves as part of the larger Ewe ethnic group. Although Christian missionaries were the first to conceive of ‘Ewe’ as a broad ethnic identity, a corpus of non-Christian ritual practices pioneered by inland Ewe slave women were crucial to many Anlos' embrace of Eweness.
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Clooney, Francis X. "Roberto de Nobili, Adaptation and the Reasonable Interpretation of Religion." Missiology: An International Review 18, no. 1 (January 1990): 25–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182969001800103.
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The study of mission history introduces us to men and women whose views of Christianity and culture only partially coincide with our own, and we learn much from the differences as well as the similarities. Roberto de Nobili, SJ, a missionary in South India in the first half of the seventeenth century, is a good example: his immersion in Indian culture and his views on the necessary adaptation of the Christian message in new environments anticipated by centuries the methods and arguments of modern inculturation theory. Yet, as will be shown, his belief in the universality of reason is premodern, and is the feature of his thought that most clearly divides him from most modern missionaries and modern scholars of religion.
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Ariel, Yaakov. "Counterculture and Mission: Jews for Jesus and the Vietnam Era Missionary Campaigns, 1970-1975." Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 9, no. 2 (1999): 233–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/rac.1999.9.2.03a00050.
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In the early 1970's, Americans noticed a striking group of people: young men and women who stood in crowded city areas, wearing T-shirts with the motto “Jews for Jesus” and distributing leaflets calling upon Jews to embrace Jesus as their savior. These people made such a strong impression and attracted so much attention that, in the eyes of many, Jews for Jesus became associated with all attempts to evangelize Jews in America, as well as becoming one of the better known groups among the Jesus Movement. Directing its attention to members of the new counterculture and adapting to the young people's style and manners, Jews for Jesus differed sharply from evangelizing organizations of the earlier period. Whereas the older generation of missionaries strictly adhered to mid-century norms of conservative evangelical propriety, the new organization believed that its more daring approach would prove more effective with the younger generation and would eventually gain evangelical approval.
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Kwong, Luke S. K. "Dr Alexander Maclean Mackay: Profile of a China Medical Missionary." Modern Asian Studies 31, no. 2 (May 1997): 415–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x00014360.
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Compared to missionaries like Timothy Richard (1845–1919) and Hudson Taylor (1832–1905), Dr Alexander Maclean Mackay is a name almost unknown in the annals of Christian evangelism in China. The personnel roster of the London Missionary Society, to which he initially belonged, did boast of such luminaries as Robert Morrison (1782–1834), a pioneering Protestant preacher in early nineteenth-century China and James Legge (1815–1897), a missionary turned Sinologist and Oxford don. But Mackay, as one of the Mission's numerous field workers, is not likely to be found in such distinguished company. In fact, his sojourn in China, in comparison, was relatively brief. It lasted not quite six years, from January 1891 to September 1896, when he died of cholera and was buried in China. In many ways, he was merely another missionary, one of the many men and women, Catholic and Protestant, who had toiled in China, then faded into oblivion, and have since eluded the eye of the historical researcher.
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Miller, Rachel. "Converting “the Indies” of Naples in Luca Giordano’s St. Francis Xavier Baptizing Indians Altarpiece." Journal of Jesuit Studies 6, no. 2 (June 21, 2019): 249–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22141332-00602004.
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This article discusses an altarpiece by Luca Giordano painted for the church of San Francesco Saverio (now San Ferdinando) in Naples in 1685. Described in contemporary sources as “St. Francis Xavier baptizing the people of Japan,” the painting reveals little about Japan or Jesuit missionary efforts in Asia; instead, the painting discloses much about how Jesuits approached their mission in Naples. Here, Jesuit missionaries found a heterogeneous environment, filled with a variety of different types of potential converts, including unruly nobles, superstitious peasants, fallen women, and a large number of Muslim slaves. Giordano’s altarpiece uses the figures of St. Francis Xavier and St. Francisco de Borja to exemplify two models for the conversions that Neapolitan Jesuits hoped to bring about—the baptism of non-Christians and the religious reform of those who had been born Christian. This article will demonstrate that Giordano’s altarpiece thematized the transformation of heterodoxy into orthodoxy, while also contributing to a Jesuit discourse that characterized Naples as being another “Indies,” an environment mired in religious heterodoxy and thus attractive to ambitious Jesuits who longed for the mission fields of far off lands.
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Long, Judi. "Miss-Iology Meets Ms-Theology." Mission Studies 19, no. 1 (2002): 155–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157338302x00099.
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AbstractMissiology and feminist theology are becoming recognized as significant voices in contemporary Christian theology, both seeking to add other dimensions to the traditional elements of theology. Missiology seeks to bring mission back into the mainstream of Christian life and thought. While there is no one feminist theology but rather a diverse range of feminist theologies, these all seek to have the perspectives of women taken seriously in all aspects of theology. Both feminist theologies and missiology have areas that the other can critique. However, most importantly, they also have areas that can be enriched by engagement with each other. Missiology like much theology, has tended to be written by men, and focuses largely on the activities and priorities of men. It can benefit from the recognition of the role of women in mission both as missionaries, and as the missionised. Women have played a crucial role in mission that is only recently being recognized and affirmed. Feminist theologies have not tended to address issues of mission with the exception of the criticism of patriarchal missionary methods and their impact upon women. Missiology challenges feminist theologies to take seriously the core truths of the gospel and how these relate to world in which we live. The creative interaction between feminist theologies and missiology will have implications for our whole understanding of God, for our view of the Bible, and for how the gospel relates to a postmodern society. Both missiology and feminist theologies have challenges to bring to traditional theology. As they engage with each other, new and exciting aspects of both feminist theologies and missiology emerge that can be developed and explored.
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Moon, Steve Sang-Cheol. "Missions from Korea 2017: The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Missions." International Bulletin of Mission Research 41, no. 2 (February 20, 2017): 121–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2396939317693991.
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The missionary movement in Korea is growing steadily in terms of the number of missionaries. At the end of December 2016, a total of 21,075 Korean missionaries (1.95 percent more than a year previously) were working under 156 mission agencies in 153 countries. For the most part, Korean missionaries lack significant knowledge of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, but the missionaries who are familiar with it typically understand that its impact on missionary service will be profound. For some, it is an opportunity; for others, a threat—which one, depending on how well missionaries and Christian workers are prepared for it.
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McNally, Michael D. "The Practice of Native American Christianity." Church History 69, no. 4 (December 2000): 834–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3169333.
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The fields of Native American religious traditions and American religious history have reached something of a shared critical juncture. Although there has been a long standing scholarly interest on writing about missions to Native Americans from a variety of viewpoints, recent years have seen the publication of a number of fresh considerations of the diversity and texture of Native American Christianity—or better, native Christianities. Native communities have long woven the stories, signs, and practices of the Christian tradition into the fabric of their lifeways, in rich and resourceful ways, even under the direst of colonizing circumstances. But only recently has scholarship begun to take this fuller texture into account: most recently, Native and Christian (1996), edited by James Treat; Native American Religious Identity (1998), edited by Jace Weaver; Sergei Kan's Memory Eternal: Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through Two Centuries; Clara Sue Kidwell's Choctaws and Missionaries; and Christopher Vecsey's multivolume study of the varieties of native Catholicism, of which volume two, The Paths of Kateri's Kin (1998), is of most interest here. This recent scholarship reflects new perspectives of native scholars entering the field and more publications that anthologize a range of native Christian viewpoints into single volumes. It has also to do with more sustained accountability among normative scholars to native communities and the way that consultants in those communities imagine their religious lives.