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1
Wibowo, Purwo Purwowi. "WOMEN MIGRANT WORKERS AND SOCIAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES." Journal Sampurasun : Interdisciplinary Studies for Cultural Heritage 3, no. 1 (July 13, 2017): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.23969/sampurasun.v3i1.113.
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Women migrant workers often face a variety of problems in the workplace, for example violence, sexual abuse, rape, extortion, and so on. Social protection systems for women migrant workers in other countries are very important. In the Philippines, there are two social protection systems to improve social welfare for vulnerable populations. Two models of social protection called the health care system and social health insurance. Both social protection systems can be managed, as based on: (1) culture value, (2) to be funded by the financial institutions, (3) implemented freely, (4) the scheme is combined with the national health insurance system, (5) able to create a high quality service. The conditions of women migrant workers are more vulnerable than male workers. So, the social protection for women migrant workers is urgent and need policies to protect them. The Government of the Philippines emphasizes the problems related to the obligation of women migrant workers to have right information and guidance before they leave the country in order to minimize social problems. Finally, social protection, not only in the Philippines, but also cooperation among countries to ptotect women migrant workers by making policy of social protection from local, national, regional, and international level.
Keywords: Migrant Worker, Social Protection in Philippines, Health Care System, Social Health Insurance
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Bongco, Roxanne T., and Rodrigo D. Abenes. "Clash of Spheres - The Paradox of Being a Female Teacher in the Philippines." Beijing International Review of Education 1, no. 2-3 (June 29, 2019): 443–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/25902539-00102012.
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Feminisation in the teaching profession is a global issue. It has been said this problem implies gender inequality in relation to their male counterpart for it results in the lack of male models in the basic education and, thus promote social exclusion. This social reality is also the case in the Philippines. Data in 2008–2009 from the Philippine Commission on Women reveals that about 89.58% of the teachers in public elementary and 77.06% in the public secondary schools are female (pcw, 2014). In this regard, this paper argues that feminisation of education in the Philippines, all the more result to uncompromising situations of female teachers for as women, they need to work in shifts as part of their changing roles both in school and at home. Further, this paper presents an analysis of the narratives of ten female teachers in basic education which reveals that in spite of the feminisation of teaching from a purely statistical perspective, they still remain disadvantaged in the career that had always been believed to be their domain, especially in the area of career promotion. Limiting factors to the promotion of women still point to their social conditions as women, where the multiplicity of social expectations and duties in their diverse spheres clash to the detriment of their careers.
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Salvador, Jordan Tovera, Ben Ryan Jucay Sauce, Marc Oneel Castillo Alvarez, and Ahrjaynes Balanag Rosario. "The Phenomenon of Teenage Pregnancy in the Philippines." European Scientific Journal, ESJ 12, no. 32 (November 30, 2016): 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n32p173.
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Teenage Pregnancy had been a worldwide issue, and has raised large numbers of campaigns and awareness to lessen its occurrence. The total number of this phenomenon is increasing each year. Philippines is one of the Asian countries which shares similar situation. In a study conducted by the National Demographic and Health Survey in 2013, one out of every young Filipino women age 15 to 19 is already a mother or pregnant with a first child. Therefore, the government in partnership with the different nongovernment agencies should exert efforts in resolving this issue. Teenage Pregnancies are often associated with social development issues such as lack of sufficient education and poverty. This often results to single parenthood which catalyzes conditions that renders the mothers to become irresponsible. Hence, it conveys a social stigma in various countries and cultures. This study would like to focus on exploring the lived experiences of Filipino teenage mothers in their pre and post-natal stage on how they prepare and accept their new roles as mothers. The gathered data from the methods were analyzed and interpreted according to qualitative content analysis. As a result, this generated emergent themes which depicted the experiences of the participants.
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Ong, Homervergel G., and Young-Dong Kim. "Herbal Therapies and Social-Health Policies: Indigenous Ati Negrito Women’s Dilemma and Reproductive Healthcare Transitions in the Philippines." Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2015 (2015): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/491209.
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The high maternal mortality in the Philippines in the past decades prompted intervention strategies to curb unwanted deaths of mothers and improve health and social conditions of women. Such introductions however have begun to challenge traditional reproductive health practices creating confusion among practitioners and incipient transitions in healthcare. Our aim in this study was to document the herbal therapies practiced by indigenous Ati Negrito women and discuss the implications of social and conventional healthcare intervention programs on reproductive healthcare traditions by conducting semistructured interviews. Fidelity Level index was used to determine culturally important plants (i.e., the most preferred). Review of related studies on most preferred plants and therapies was further carried out to provide information regarding their safety/efficacy (or otherwise). Determination of informants’ traditional medicinal knowledge was done using Mann-WhitneyUand Kruskal-Wallis tests. A total of 49 medicinal plants used in treating female reproductive health-related syndromes across four categories were recorded. Significant differences in traditional medicinal knowledge were recorded when informants were grouped according to age, education, and number of children. Issues discussed in this research could hopefully raise awareness on changes in healthcare practices in indigenous cultures and on medical safety especially when traditional and conventional medications interact.
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Palma, Diana M., and Jennifer Parr. "Behind prison walls: HIV vulnerability of female Filipino prisoners." International Journal of Prisoner Health 15, no. 3 (August 29, 2019): 232–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijph-12-2017-0060.
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Purpose The imprisoned population is increasing worldwide and is overrepresented in the HIV epidemic. The purpose of this paper is to explore the HIV vulnerability of female Filipinos who are pre-trial prisoners, as the specific needs of imprisoned women are poorly understood and fewer resources are granted to pre-trial detainees, especially in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). Design/methodology/approach This study was based on a Qualitative Descriptive Design. In total, 18 semi-structured interviews were conducted with prisoners and NGO directors. Data were analysed through Framework Analysis, using the individual, social and community categories of the Modified Socio-Ecological Model. Findings Results from this study suggest that the prison environment and management practices maximise the HIV vulnerability in the sample. This vulnerability is shaped by low HIV knowledge, combined with the existence of multiple social vulnerabilities prior to incarceration. Social implications HIV care in Filipino prisons needs urgent attention from government and international organisations, as it is a major public health and human rights concern. International goals of ending the epidemic by 2030 cannot be reached if efforts are not translated into action within this setting. Originality/value In the Philippines, few studies have addressed this issue and little is known about the conditions of Filipino prisons. This paper aims to fill a gap in literature regarding the vulnerability of imprisoned women in LMICs, which is even more limited in examining pre-trial detention.
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Tanyag, Maria. "Depleting fragile bodies: the political economy of sexual and reproductive health in crisis situations." Review of International Studies 44, no. 4 (June 6, 2018): 654–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210518000128.
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AbstractIn a crisis-prone world, the number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) uprooted by both armed conflicts and environmental disasters has drastically increased and displacement risks have intensified. Despite the growing attention within global security and development agendas to sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR), there remain striking gaps in addressing SRHR in crisis situations, particularly among IDP women and girls. This article examines the continuum between social reproduction in times of crisis and the material and ideological conditions that restrict women’s bodily autonomy in everyday life. Using the case of the Philippines where millions of people are routinely affected by conflict and disaster-induced displacements, it argues that the failure to recognise the centrality of women’s health and bodily autonomy not only hinders the sustainable provision of care and domestic labour during and after crisis, but also fundamentally constrains how security is enacted within these spaces. Thus, the article highlights an urgent need to rethink the gendered political economy of crisis responses as a building block for stemming gendered violence and depletion of social reproductive labour at the household, state, and global levels.
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Salaff, Janet W., and Judith Nagata. "Conclusion." Asian Journal of Social Science 24, no. 1 (1996): 131–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/030382496x00113.
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AbstractWhat occupies us in this volume is how women at all social levels devise their own coping mechanisms to deal with the impact of externally imposed pressures. Their stories reflect the creative solutions with which they have come to terms with some of the resulting problems, but always in a very personal way and without recourse to any form of collective action or organization. With a few exceptions, most of these women are still committed to traditional roles and the perception of obligations, even if the content of the role has changed. At least these "core" roles seem ideologically more resistant to change, such that there is a considerable lag between changing social conditions and the values underpinning them (cf. Goody, 1984). Apparently, it is only when women have become exposed, either through education, overseas travel or scholarly professions, that outside ("Western") notions of feminism and gender equality emerge. It is the highly unique and privileged upper middle class who agitate and raise the consciousness of their "deprived" sisters, and who also initiate women's organizations and support centres. If an awareness of womanhood for itself, a gender-as-class type of feminism has yet to surface in most of the societies of Southeast Asia, it is still legitimate to pursue the question of situation of women as a group-in-itself, as a potential action group. If we focus on the kinship system, as we have seen above, there is little in the ideology, distribution of resources and male-female relationships in traditional Southeast Asian practice (the immigrant Chinese here being something of an exception), to suggest an undue exploitation or oppression of women as a whole. In the domestic arrangements of most of them, a modus vivendi had been struck, an acceptance of role complementarily whether labelled the "myth of male dominance" (Rogers, 1975; Hirschon, 1984), or the false consciousness so readily perceived by many outsiders. Operating from the domestic core, women devise all manner of individual strategies to pursue their interests, influence their kin and turn events towards their chosen direction. Whether within or outside the household, such strategies are in the broadest sense political and can have substantial impact upon the male world (Collier, 1974). Commonly, women act or achieve their goals indirectly through men, particularly by the manipulation of husbands, brothers and sons, so that even the Chinese woman may eventually come into her own as a mother-in-law. In this collection of stories, Chat is the supreme example of this kind of successful manipulator. Satisfaction may even be had vicariously, as in Tok Nyam's pleasure in seeing her husband and sons make the pilgrimage to Mecca ahead of her. All of these women have managed to make, within their own small worlds, a choice of action between two or more options: Maimunah and Ah Ling opted for a non-traditional life of their own in the city, while Zainab chose to retreat from it and ease her family into compliance with her choice. The Singapore women's solutions to their working situation constantly result in a creative tension and some changes in the original Chinese family organization. For all the poverty of her family, even Yurni has been bold enough to spurn employment with and dependence on Ibu Ica, whom she dislikes, taking up alternative sharecropping and embroidery jobs instead. Rufina left Manila to marry the man of her own choosing, and in the most desperate of circumstances, devises a constant series of strategies of survival, while she and Tia Lilia are both victims of a system of rural proletarianization endemic in the Philippines. The deprivations of the latter two women stem, not from their position in a kinship, domestic or male-dominated system, but rather from the inequities of the wider society beyond them. In the case of the Muslim women in particular, some "interference" or even conflict emerges between the ideologies of their religion and kinship customs. In matrilineal Minangkabau society, Islam's main impact on Yurni has been in diverting the girls to an inferior or less modern type of education in favour of preparing the boys for a profession or other career. Islam moulded the sequence of Tok Nyam's divorce, remarriage and such important events in her life as the pilgrimage, but in no way prevented her from enjoying an active community life and the profits of her pandanus mat trade. Zainab happened to be growing up at a time when Islam was on the upswing in her social set and the immediate pressures of her social environment undoubtedly provided some coercive effect. Yet the final choice was still her own: Maimunah, living in the same time and place, charted a different path for herself. In the final analysis, it is probably to the world beyond the kin and family group that we must turn to seek the locus of the real inequities and the sources of oppression as they affect women, both in Southeast Asia and elsewhere. As noted above, the origins of most of the problems of the disadvantaged women of our collection lie in their overall class position, or in the political situation of their country. Rufina and Tia Lilia are the most dramatic examples here, and to a lesser degree, Yurni. In these cases, it must be recognized that the men, alongside the women, are also in positions of dependence and deprivation lacking the means to take control of their own lives and condition. It is a fallacy to assume that women represent an undifferentiated common interest group on the basis of their gender alone, for factors more powerful emerge on the backs of such distinctions as wealth, status, class, ethnicity and religion. Even the "advantages" of involvement in modern economic development, employment and education institutions are dependent upon these same distinctions, such that, for example, elite women may benefit more than those of lower status, as shown by Ibu Ica and Yurni, or women of one ethnic origin may be eligible for certain employment opportunities less available to those of other backgrounds for political reasons, as the urban careers of Maimunah, Zainab and Ah Ling illustrate. In the Philippines, it is to the destructive process of increasing rural proletarianization and poverty affecting the country as a whole that Rufina and Tia Lilia owe their pitiful existence, of which their menfolk are equally victims. Women in their own daily lives take cognisance of these various roles in devising strategies of action and charting paths to particular goals. None of this is quantifiable in any reliable way and to attempt to do so is to reduce the women actors to the anonymous shadow, dependent role occupants that most feminists would strenuously avoid. The alternative pursued here is the biographical method which allows us to present more of the individual richness of the situations of a small sample of selected women, as seen through their own eyes. In this exercise, the observer/biographers have deliberately refrained from passing judgment of a cultural, feminist or other variety, instead using the opportunity for interaction with their subjects to gain insights into both cultures through a process of defamiliarization and refamiliarization simultaneously.
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Mendoza, Eva N. "Are Conditional Cash Transfer programs for women? Engendering the Philippine Pantawid." Asian Social Work and Policy Review 13, no. 1 (February 2019): 78–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aswp.12158.
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Hutchison, Jane. "Women in the Philippines garments exports industry." Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 4 (January 1992): 471–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00472339280000311.
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Lindio-Mcgovern, Ligaya. "The Philippines: counter-insurgency and peasant women." Race & Class 34, no. 4 (April 1993): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030639689303400401.
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Lomotan, Maria Milagros Regina, and Maria Divina Gracia Roldan. "Enabling Women Micro-Entrepreneurs through Social Enterprises in the Philippines." International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social and Community Studies 16, no. 2 (2021): 75–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2324-7576/cgp/v16i02/75-81.
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Tyner, James A. "The Social Construction of Gendered Migration from the Philippines." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 3, no. 4 (December 1994): 589–618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/011719689400300404.
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Despite a considerable amount of research conducted on Asian labor migration, decidedly little attention has focused on the vulnerability and exploitation of women overseas contract workers. This article examines how the social construction of gender influences the migration of Filipina overseas workers and contributes to the increased vulnerability and exploitation of women migrants. In particular, direct and indirect socialization processes, as well as gendered and racial stereotypes, are manifest within the labor recruitment process, helping to channel women migrants into the domestic services and entertainment sectors of this migration flow.
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Tuason, Ma Teresa. "The Poor in the Philippines." Psychology and Developing Societies 22, no. 2 (September 2010): 299–330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097133361002200204.
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The purpose of this article is to describe the face of poverty in the Philippines. Specifically, through a review of literature, it enumerates the features of destitution in the Philippines, identifies the problems that create, maintain and worsen poverty, and illustrates the coping processes of Filipinos who have made it out of poverty. Empirical studies discussed perceptions of the poor, homelessness and subhuman living conditions, marginalisation from economic growth, mental and physical health concerns due to socio-economic deprivation and deficiencies in health care, family stressors, overseas working, increased violence and social injustices to children, increasing numbers of street children, and the cultural values in the Philippines (e.g., pagpupunyagi: perseverance and resourcefulness, pakikipagkapwa: reliance on others). Based on the study by Tuason (2008), the model of coping processes of those who were born poor and became rich is illustrated. The model includes the domains such as: the experience of deprivation; negative emotions of self-pity, insecurity, envy and anger; intolerance for continued poverty; praying to God for change; dreams for self and resourcefulness; education and drive; gratitude; helping those in need; and lucky chance events. For those born poor, the societal structures in the Philippines keep most everyone from being economically successful.
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Jovita, Hazel D., Haedar Nashir, Dyah Mutiarin, Yasmira Moner, and Achmad Nurmandi. "Social capital and disasters: How does social capital shape post-disaster conditions in the Philippines?" Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 29, no. 4 (January 29, 2019): 519–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1556143.
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José, Ricardo T. "War and Violence, History and Memory: The Philippine Experience of the Second World War." Asian Journal of Social Science 29, no. 3 (2001): 457–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853101x00190.
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AbstractThe subject of War and Memory in the Philippines remains a sensitive topic in the Philippines today. Many controversial issues about the Second World War remain subjects of debate, among them collaboration with the Japanese; Japanese war responsibility; American responsibility for the failed defense of the Philippines, and others. In one sense, the war in the Philippines has left an ambiguous legacy which leads to conflicting war memories and commemorations, particularly in the light of present conditions and evolving relationships with the other countries involved.
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Colchero, M. Arantxa, and David Bishai. "Weight and earnings among childbearing women in Metropolitan Cebu, Philippines (1983–2002)." Economics & Human Biology 10, no. 3 (July 2012): 256–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2011.04.002.
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Narag, Raymund E., and Clarke R. Jones. "Understanding Prison Management in the Philippines." Prison Journal 97, no. 1 (November 18, 2016): 3–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032885516679366.
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Current prison management models strictly prohibit inmates from assisting with prison administration or governance. This is feasible in developed countries where governments can provide adequate resources, security, and personnel. It is not, however, realistic in developing countries like the Philippines, which is characterized by poverty, corruption, and underresourcing of correctional facilities. In such circumstances, inmate leaders tend to share governance with prison administrators. Despite occurring out of necessity, not by design, this system normalizes social conditions within a prison. This article examines the ramifications of such a shared governance model for correctional management by means of ethnographic research.
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Skaptadóttir, Unnur Dís. "Transnational Practices and Migrant Capital: The Case of Filipino Women in Iceland." Social Inclusion 7, no. 4 (December 19, 2019): 211–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/si.v7i4.2320.
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Filipinos have been moving to Iceland in increasing numbers since the 1990s, primarily for employment opportunities and to reunite with relatives. They are the third largest group of immigrants in Iceland and the largest group from Asia. The majority of them work in low-income jobs in the service and production sectors where they do not utilize their education. Many arrived with the help of relatives already living in Iceland. Based on multi-sited ethnographic research, this article examines the diverse mobilization of migrant capital in Iceland and in the Philippines. The analysis draws on Bourdieu’s concepts of capital and transnational theories to highlight how Filipinos draw on formal and informal resources in Iceland and their transnational social field in mobilizing their capital. Their extended kin groups in Iceland and networks back in the Philippines are important in building migrant capital in Iceland and in the Philippines. The study shows that this mobilization is not only affected by structural factors in Iceland, such as racialization, but also by economic position and cultural capital in the Philippines.
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Henderson, Sophie. "State-Sanctioned Structural Violence: Women Migrant Domestic Workers in the Philippines and Sri Lanka." Violence Against Women 26, no. 12-13 (November 1, 2019): 1598–615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801219880969.
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Adopting a structural violence approach, this article examines how the failure to implement protective rights-based migration policies by the governments in the Philippines and Sri Lanka creates the conditions for the systematic exploitation of women migrant domestic workers by recruitment agencies and employers. Fieldwork conducted in 2018 with advocacy groups, government agencies, and international organizations in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Hong Kong illustrates how both countries are prioritizing the promotion of overseas employment and commodification of labor above the protection of the rights of their women domestic workers under domestic and international law.
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Abalos, Jeofrey B. "Living Arrangements of the Divorced and Separated in the Philippines." Asian Journal of Social Science 39, no. 6 (2011): 845–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853111x619256.
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Abstract This paper aims to present a brief profile of divorced and separated Filipino men and women and examine their living arrangements across selected characteristics. Results show that those who experienced marital dissolution at younger ages are more likely to live in an extended household, while divorced and separated Filipinos who are in the middle age groups tend to live in a single-parent household. At older ages, divorced and separated Filipinos are more likely to live in an extended household. Moreover, divorced and separated men, those with low level of education, those in the labour force, those living in non-city and who are non-migrants are more likely to live in a one-person household or a single-parent household. On the other hand, divorced and separated women, those with higher level of education, those not in the labour force, those who are migrants and non-Muslims are more likely to live in an extended household. In addition, households with large number of own children are more likely to be single-parent households rather than extended households.
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Riphagen, F. E., O. S. de la Cueva, and S. Koelb. "A survey of family planning in the Philippines." Journal of Biosocial Science 20, no. 4 (October 1988): 435–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932000017557.
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SummaryIn a multi-centre survey in 1986, 400 married Filipino women aged 15–40 were interviewed about their use of contraceptive methods, and specifically about their perceptions of the effects on health of oral contraceptives and their attitudes to contraceptive methods. The sample was randomly selected in the urban and rural areas surveyed and cannot be considered representative for the country as a whole. The results showed that women hold definitive views on the health risks posed by oral contraceptives and point to the importance of family planning clinics as a source of contraceptive counselling. The overall rate of contraceptive use must be regarded as insufficient to meet contraceptive needs.
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Abalos, Jeofrey B. "Trends and Determinants of Age at Union of Men and Women in the Philippines." Journal of Family Issues 35, no. 12 (June 5, 2014): 1624–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513x14538024.
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Laylo, Aaron. "Macro-level enabling conditions for the formation of social business enterprises in the Philippines." Asia Pacific Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship 12, no. 1 (April 16, 2018): 5–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/apjie-12-2017-0044.
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Purpose A conducive and enabling environment is imperative for the formation of sustainable social business enterprises (SBEs). This paper aims to identify the macro-level enabling conditions necessary for SBE formation and to analyze them in the context of the Philippines, an emerging economy that is yet to be transformed into an inclusive one. Design/methodology/approach Major developments on micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, specifically on social enterprises, were revisited and analyzed. The author also looked into how they are sustained, supported and nurtured in the Philippines’ overall economic landscape. Extensive data were collected from relevant agencies in public and private sectors, after which they were analyzed parallel to existing academic literature, i.e. theories, models and concepts, on social entrepreneurship and development nexus. Findings It has been found that the four macro-level enabling conditions, namely, governance, socially inclusive economic approach, financial services and entrepreneurial culture, presumed to be vital for SBE formation, contribute to the latter at various levels, but surely complement each other in the process. Research limitations/implications The significance of exploring the context in which social enterprises are formed and flourish lies in the sheer importance of understanding the sustained prevalence of SBEs in many economies – both in developed and developing ones. Originality/value By having a more structured knowledge of the components surrounding SBE formation, the community may be able to also simultaneously explore why and how social entrepreneurs form profit-earning business entities that are primarily driven by social advocacies and goals.
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Williams, Lindy, Midea Kabamalan, and Nimfa Ogena. "Cohabitation in the Philippines: Attitudes and Behaviors Among Young Women and Men." Journal of Marriage and Family 69, no. 5 (December 2007): 1244–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00444.x.
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Opiniano, Jeremaiah M. "The ‘new’ Philippine future “beside” the exodus." Asian Education and Development Studies 10, no. 1 (April 21, 2020): 53–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/aeds-02-2019-0027.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to review the international migration-and-development story of the Philippines, amongst the leading migrant-origin countries.Design/methodology/approachMigration and socio-economic development data are used to depict the migration-and-development conditions of the Philippines.FindingsThe Philippines has mastered the management of overseas migration based on its bureaucracy and policies for the migrant sector. Migration also rose for decades given structural economic constraints. However, the past 10 years of macro-economic growth may have seen migration and remittances helping lift the Philippines' medium-to-long term acceleration. The new Philippine future beside the overseas exodus hinges on two trends: accelerating the economic empowerment of overseas Filipinos and their families to make them better equipped to handle the social costs of migration; and strategizing how to capture a “diasporic dividend” by pushing for more investments from overseas migrants' savings.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper may not cover the entirety of the Philippines' migration-and-development phenomenon.Practical implicationsImproving the financial capabilities of overseas Filipinos and their families will lead to their economic empowerment and to hopefully a more resilient handling of the (negative) social consequences of migration.Social implicationsIf overseas Filipinos and their families handle their economic resources better, they may be able to conquer the social costs of migration.Originality/valueThis paper employed a population-and-development (PopDev) framework to analyse the migration-and-development conditions of the Philippines.
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Lopez-Gonzaga, Violeta. "Crisis, Poverty, and Survival in the Philippines: One Woman Finds Hope." Missiology: An International Review 15, no. 3 (July 1987): 357–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009182968701500307.
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Filipino women have traditionally enjoyed greater equality than women in other Southeast Asian countries, and women have played an important role in keeping families together despite impoverished conditions. One such woman is Rufina, who grew up amid poverty, and began working at the age of 14 to help support her family. More recently, due to military conflict in the countryside, she was forced to flee with her six children to the city of Bacolod, where she lived in an abandoned storage building with five other refugee families. Amid the crisis her two youngest children died, but through the seemingly hopeless circumstances, Rufina found hope through the ministry of a Christian evangelist, who was able to offer her medical aid and food supplies through a local congregation of believers.
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Shim, Jin-Keong. "Women as Social Conditions― Focused on roman à clef Based on New Women." DAEDONG MUNHWA YEON'GU ll, no. 82 (June 2013): 77–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.18219/ddmh..82.201306.77.
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Battistella, Graziano. "Multi-level Policy Approach in the Governance of Labour Migration: Considerations From the Philippine Experience." Asian Journal of Social Science 40, no. 4 (2012): 419–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685314-12341243.
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Abstract With 40 years of experience in labour migration, the Philippines has designed a comprehensive approach for its governance that other countries of origin in Asia look up to. The objectives of the migration policy consist in facilitating the employment of Filipino workers abroad and the consequent economic benefits, while ensuring safe and decent conditions for the workers, through a variety of measures, including regulating the recruitment industry, training migrants through specific programmes, supervising the terms and conditions in the labour contract, and making available a system of redress for victimised migrants. These objectives are reached through the national migration policy. However, the national policy has inherent limitations, both in terms of design, implementation and reach, as the outreach of the Philippine government while migrants are abroad is limited to diplomatic and other services. For this reason, the Philippines has engaged both in bilateral and multilateral cooperation. This paper, after presenting the development of migration from the Philippines at the three policy levels, will briefly assess the efficacy of such policies, using indicators, such as growth of migration flows and coverage, to conclude that all three levels must be pursued, with some preference for the bilateral approach within a multilateral framework.
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Osi, Enrico Cirineo, and Mendiola Teng-Calleja. "Women on top: the career development journey of Filipina business executives in the Philippines." Career Development International 26, no. 2 (February 15, 2021): 140–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/cdi-05-2020-0132.
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PurposeThis paper aims to examine the experiences of Filipina women business executives occupying top-most leadership roles in male-dominated industries in the Philippines.Design/methodology/approachThis qualitative research utilized the institutional theory and a phenomenological approach with semi-structured interviews for data collection. The seven women executives were purposively selected and interviewed in-depth. Participants were renowned leaders in six male-dominated industries in the country.FindingsThree phases – growing up years, career advancement and raising a family and becoming and being the chief executive officer (CEO) tracked the career development journey of the Filipina women business leaders that participated in the study. Cultural, organizational and familial factors emerged as contextual dimensions at each phase that the women business executives needed to navigate in their journey to the top. Six sub-themes reflect challenges in their career progression – women as in-charge of households, expectations as mothers, limited representation in the boardroom, discrimination as women leaders, women not seen as leaders and husband's ego. Four other sub-themes served as enablers – equal opportunity culture, career pathing and diversity, male mentors/role models and enlightened husbands. The CEO's personal characteristics surfaced as a critical factor – spirituality, being competitive but not ambitious, speaks her mind, can-do attitude, accountability, openness to learn and continually re-invents self.Research limitations/implicationsThe participants only included top-most Filipina women business leaders. Implications to women executives' career development in organizations are discussed.Originality/valueThis current study contributes a proposed conceptual model in the understanding of the career development journey of Filipina women executives in the Philippines where recent findings found greater recognition of their work in the corporate setting as compared to more developed Asian countries.
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Sifris, Ronli, and Maria Tanyag. "Intersectionality, Transitional Justice, and the Case of Internally Displaced Moro Women in the Philippines." Human Rights Quarterly 41, no. 2 (2019): 399–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2019.0031.
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Zapico, Florence, Jose Hernandez, Teresita Borromeo, Kenneth McNally, Josefina Dizon, and Edwino Fernando. "Traditional agro-ecosystems in Southern Philippines." International Journal of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment 10, no. 4 (August 29, 2019): 289–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijdrbe-06-2019-0036.
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Purpose Sarangani, a province in Southern Philippines, is inhabited predominantly by tribal groups who depend on traditional rice farming for subsistence and livelihood. The purpose of this study is to identify current pressures to these upland communities and the interventions instituted to address them or mitigate their effects. Design/methodology/approach This is an exploratory and cross-sectional research using the emic approach. Rapid rural appraisal techniques (i.e. focus group discussion, key informant interviews, community immersion and field observation) were concurrently undertaken in 15 farming villages in the Sarangani uplands. Findings Results revealed that many upland families inhabited disaster-prone areas under conditions of hardship and abject poverty. Prevalent problems in these areas have largely arisen from the encroachment of modern agriculture, environmental degradation and changes in the socio-political and economic spheres. Consequently, food insecurity, cultural and genetic erosion and biodiversity losses have resulted in lowered Sarangani agro-ecosystem resilience. While policies and programs had been instituted to address these problems, positive results still remain to be realized. Social implications Weak social networks in the Sarangani upland communities are attributable to their isolation and the disruptive influences of modernization. Agricultural modernization, in particular, caused the disintegration of community social structures and undermined overall well-being of the farmers. Sustainable strategies which harmonize modern and traditional systems of food production and environmental management are warranted to attain food security, environmental preservation and bio-cultural preservation. Originality/value This study contributes to the present body of knowledge about threats to vulnerable agro-ecosystems inhabited mainly by indigenous tribes. And while only 15 farming villages were covered by the study, these results can serve as a microcosm of what is happening in traditional agro-ecosystems worldwide. The study is also expected to provide inputs to policymakers, which they can use in crafting policies to address problems in the Sarangani uplands.
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Patil, Savita, and Haji Begum. "Study of social conditions and economic problems of employed women." ADVANCE RESEARCH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE 9, no. 2 (December 15, 2018): 230–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.15740/has/arjss/9.2/230-234.
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Borromeo-Buehler, Soledad. "The Inquilinos of Cavite: A Social Class in Nineteenth-Century Philippines." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 16, no. 1 (March 1985): 69–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022463400012777.
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Studies about Philippine colonial class structure are singularly scant. With the exception of Scott's work on the sixteenth century, no effort has yet been made to shed light upon the problem of how Philippine society had been stratified during the long span of the Spanish and American regimes. This paper tries to describe and analyze the manner in which a segment of nineteenth-century Philippine society was structured, and offers a conceptualization of what constituted a provincial “social class” at the time by looking at the role of the inquilino (leaseholders of agricultural land) in Caviteño society. Specifically, it (a) rejects the idea that native Filipino society was composed of only two social strata: a tiny upper stratum and a mass of uniformly poor population; (b) and implies that the native class structure was far from having been static during the Spanish regime. Due to limitations in the sources, no attempt has been made to trace in an evolutionary manner the development of the inquilinos as a social class. The study deals mainly with the Dominican hacienda town of Naic, although less detailed information on other municipalities like Imus, Bacoor, Kawit, Santa Cruz de Malabon, and San Francisco de Malabon suggest the existence of similar conditions that could have fostered the development of an intermediate social class composed largely of inquilinos.
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Enrile, Annalisa, and Jennifer Nazareno. "Violence against Women: Critical Feminist Theory, Social Action And Social Work in the Philippines a Study of a Global Immersion Program." Global Studies Journal 4, no. 2 (2012): 233–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/1835-4432/cgp/v04i02/40768.
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ACHING, Michele Carmona, and Tania Mara Marques GRANATO. "The good enough mother under social vulnerability conditions." Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) 33, no. 1 (March 2016): 15–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1982-02752016000100003.
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Abstract The present qualitative study aims to understand the affective and emotional attitudes that support the maternal experience in precarious conditions by articulating the maternal ideals of socially vulnerable women through the Winnicottian concept of the good enough mother. We used a procedure called Interactive Narrative to facilitate a less defensive and more ludic approach to the studied theme and invited women sheltered in an institution for pregnant and puerperal women to complete a story that had been written by the researcher. In the second stage, we formed a discussion group to gain insight into participants' conceptions of motherhood. The material produced was analyzed as a collective production so that we could identify underlying affective and emotional aspects of the group's imaginative elaborations about motherhood in precarious conditions. Feelings of helplessness, abandonment and loneliness were as present in the narrative productions as the idea that having a child creates opportunities for the development of maternal capabilities.
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Kahf, Mohja. "Women and Social Justice." American Journal of Islam and Society 8, no. 2 (September 1, 1991): 347–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v8i2.2633.
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The task undertaken in this book, the development of a “third approach”to the issue of women’s oppression superceding both feminism and traditionalism,is much needed and much neglected in the Islamic movement.Specifically, Ahmad analyzes the impact of the introduction of hudud (Islamicpenal code) laws in Pakistan and makes policy recommendations for theirreform. Although his analysis is not limited in usefulness to Pakistan, it islimited, however, by several shortcomings in argument, structure, and language.Ahmad’s strong points emerge in his empirical study of Pakistani familylaw. While he attempts to refute the criticism that the hudud laws discriminateagainst women, he also recognizes that the application of these laws in alegal patchwork fraught with contradictions has not helped women. For example,the Family Laws Ordinance of 1961 requires all marriages to be officiallyreported but, with common and Islamic opinion being contrary, thislaw is frequently neglected. So when the hudud laws of 1979 made adulterypunishable, women living in Islamic but unreported marriages were reportedfor adultery by vengeful ex-husbands. This particular problem would be solved,Ahmad argues, by punishing such men for slander, a neglected aspect ofthe Shari‘ah’s approach to adultery which is to women’s advantage. He arguesfor an end to “this vicious circle of immediacy, adhocism and temporarysolutions” (p. 48) in the application of the Shari‘ah, and for a more creative,comprehensive reform. His use of statistics from Pakistani courts is an attemptto ground his analysis in the living reality of Pakistani women, anattempt which is only infrequently made by Islamist writers on women’s issues,who usually hide behind obscure generalizations about the ideal society.It is also edifying to see an Islamist writer admit that “we should notdoubt the intent and motive of those who talk on these issues and take adifferent position” (p. 11). Too often this debate over the status of womenresults in bitter and useless finger-pointing in which the advocates of changein women’s conditions are labelled “Western,” as if one had to be Westernto see anything exploitative about the present treatment of Muslim women.Unfortunately, Ahmad does not stick to his promise and succumbs to a defensivediatribe against his ideological opponents, calling them ‘‘crypto-colonialists’’and emphasizing their emergence from the upper classes. The same charge ...
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McKelvey, Robert S., and John A. Webb. "A Prospective Study of Psychological Distress Related to Refugee Camp Experience." Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 31, no. 4 (August 1997): 549–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00048679709065077.
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Objective: Previous reports have suggested a direct relationship between refugee camp experience and levels of psychological distress among refugees. Specifically, it has been postulated that refugee camps with harsh conditions and low levels of social support foster high levels of psychological distress. The present study was designed to assess the relationship between camp conditions and social support within a refugee camp and refugees' levels of psychological distress. Unlike previous reports, which were based on retrospective data, the present study evaluated psychological distress among a group of Vietnamese refugees both prior to departure from Vietnam and during their refugee camp experience. Method: A group of 101 Vietnamese Amerasians was assessed at a transit centre in Vietnam and subsequently at a refugee camp in the Philippines. Assessment instruments were the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 and a Camp Comparison Questionnaire. Results: There were significant decreases in symptom levels of anxiety and depression between the transit centre in Vietnam and the refugee camp in the Philippines. However, these changes were not related to changes in refugee camp conditions or social support within the camp. Conclusions: Contrary to previous reports, levels of psychological distress among this group of Vietnamese refugees were not related to either refugee camp conditions or levels of social support within the camp.
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Eslami, Susan S., Ronald H. Gray, Ruben Apelo, and Rebecca Ramos. "The Reliability of Menses to Indicate the Return of Ovulation in Breastfeeding Women in Manila, The Philippines." Studies in Family Planning 21, no. 5 (September 1990): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1966504.
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Jabar, Melvin A., and Crisanto Q. Regadio. "Sources and consequences of happiness among Alangan Mangyan women in the municipality of Baco, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines." Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 29, no. 5 (March 7, 2019): 566–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2019.1568342.
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Tey, Nai-Peng, Siow-Li Lai, and Sor-Tho Ng. "AGE AT MENARCHE AND SEXUAL DEBUT AMONG YOUNG FILIPINO WOMEN." Journal of Biosocial Science 51, no. 1 (January 21, 2018): 77–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932017000682.
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SummaryThere has been a secular decline in age at menarche since the 19th century. Early-maturing women are more likely to have their sexual debut at a younger age, which in turn gives rise to a host of reproductive health and social problems. This study used data from five waves of National Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in the Philippines between 1993 and 2013 to examine the trends and socioeconomic differentials in age at menarche and sexual debut. The changing trend in age at menarche and sexual debut was examined across birth cohorts, and logistic regressions were used to identify the determinants of early sexual debut. In the Philippines, the mean and median ages at menarche declined from 13.2 years and 12.6 years, respectively, among young women born in 1973–1977, to 12.9 years and 12.3 years, respectively, among those born in 1993–1997. The proportion who had their sexual debut by age 20 increased from 41.2% for the 1968–1972 birth cohort to 53.4% for the 1988–1992 birth cohort. Filipino women with low education, from poor families and living in rural areas were more likely to have earlier sexual debut despite attaining menarche at a later age as compared with their higher educated counterparts, and those from wealthier families and urban areas. Logistic regression analysis showed that, besides marital status, women’s education and age at menarche were important determinants of early sexual debut. However, ethnicity, place of residence and family wealth had no significant effects on age at menarche. An increasing proportion of young women were found to be having unprotected sexual debut and at a younger age, with health and social ramifications. Hence, apart from increasing the enrolment of girls in schools and discouraging teenage marriage, there is a need for social and health agencies to implement appropriate adolescent sexual and reproductive health programmes such as counselling and educational campaigns, as well as support services, to address sexual problems among the youth.
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Uyheng, Joshua, Juleini Vivien Nicdao, Caroline Leanne Carmona, and Nico A. Canoy. "Intersectional discourses of reproductive agency in the Philippines: A mixed methods analysis of classed constructions of pregnancy resolution." Feminism & Psychology 30, no. 4 (April 15, 2020): 445–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959353520915829.
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Women negotiate gendered discourses of reproductive agency in resolving unplanned pregnancies. Invoking an intersectional lens, this paper examines how these discursive dynamics differentiate across social class in the Global South context of the Philippines. Utilizing a novel mixed methods strategy, we triangulate quantitative findings from a Q sort task and qualitative accounts of pregnancy resolution to identify classed discourses of reproductive agency as (a) reclaiming maternal virtue and (b) asserting autonomous choice. Statistical analysis reveals significant discursive divergence across class, wherein working-class women primarily adopt maternal virtue discourses while middle-class women disproportionately subscribe to autonomous choice. Interpretative analysis of women’s accounts complicates this bifurcated characterization by surfacing the diverse ways by which women negotiate both discourses in narratives of abortion and carrying to term. We discuss our contributions to the literature in terms of multilevel theoretical engagement with classed complexity in gendered issues like reproductive agency as well as innovating mixed methods in intersectional research. We conclude with reflections on advancing reproductive justice, especially in Global South societies like the Philippines.
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Gajewski, Mariusz. "Social and personal aspects of single motherhood: pedagogical and social contexts." Problemy Opiekuńczo-Wychowawcze 591, no. 6 (June 1, 2020): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.1536.
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The article addresses the issue of single motherhood for women in individual, social and pedagogical aspects. The personality and social conditions of single motherhood were analysed. Two main contexts of experiencing motherhood by contemporary women were pointed out, which are social norms and cultural patterns as well as individual, intrapsychic conditions of perceiving oneself as a mother. Social references and pedagogical conditions of single motherhood were shown. It was pointed out that the way women experience motherhood depends to a large extent on family, professional, colleague situations and random events. While discussing the issues of loneliness and solitude, the pedagogical aspect of this phenomenon and the multitude of possible attitudes and references to motherhood experienced were pointed out. The article indicates that social expectations for single mothers imply how women perceive their motherhood and how it affects the pedagogical dimension of its implementation. Motherhood as a conscious decision of a woman and as an undesirable state, as a consequence of events over which the woman-mother has no influence – these are other versions of motherhood described and analysed in the article. The article ends with considerations on the pedagogical dimension of the implementation of motherhood, and therefore on the role and place of children and family as the closest environment of women-mothers. The final part also indicates the need for institutional support for single mothers and their families.
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Mason, Lisa Reyes. "Gender and Asset Dimensions of Seasonal Water Insecurity in Urban Philippines." Weather, Climate, and Society 4, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 20–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/wcas-d-11-00037.1.
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Abstract Seasonal water insecurity is a social and climate-related problem of growing concern in many urban areas. From 2000 to 2050, the global urban population affected by seasonal water shortage is projected to increase from 312 million to 1.3 billion. This increase is due to a combination of drivers, including population growth, urbanization, and climate change. To advance understanding of the social dimensions of this problem, this study uses qualitative methods—archival research, informal interviews (N = 7), and in-depth interviews (N = 15)—to explore how gender and assets relate to water insecurity in the rainy and dry seasons in three urban neighborhoods in Baguio City, the Philippines. Analytic methods include memo production and qualitative text analysis. Key findings are that households manage complex water portfolios that change seasonally or more frequently; women and men have gendered roles in managing water portfolios, providing versus managing income for water purchases, and physically carrying water; and particular assets (specific physical, financial, and social capitals) seem to matter for reducing seasonal water insecurity, in ways that may be gendered as well. Implications for more gender-sensitive and asset-focused research and policy are discussed.
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Guingab, Rosalinda S., and Pedrita N. Medrano. "Quality of provider-client interaction in a reproductive health clinic in Isabela, Philippines." International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS) 10, no. 3 (September 1, 2021): 522. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijphs.v10i3.20834.
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The quality of provider-interaction determines client satisfaction and decision to seek health care. This research aimed to determine the women clients’ perception of their quality of interaction with the health care providers in a government reproductive health clinic in one of the municipalities in northern Philippines. Respondents consisted of 30 pregnant women who had visited the clinic for prenatal health care check-up were interviewed. A structured questionnaire and a semi-structured guided for probing served as the study’s research instruments. Women perceived the health care providers to possess good communication skills, and had displayed behavior that showed a regard for them. However, the providerinteraction was considered to be unilinear, with the provider perceived to have dominated the interface, The women also perceived only a somewhat evident show of sympathy/empathy. Hostile words were heard frequently. Creation of a two-way interaction with respect for their clients must be considered by the health care providers. Policies must also be formulated to improve the quality of provider-client interaction inside reproductive health clinics.
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Luyt, Brendan. "Empire forestry and its failure in the Philippines: 1901–1941." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 47, no. 1 (December 22, 2015): 66–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022463415000466.
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From the mid-nineteenth century onwards there developed in the British colonies a distinctive set of forestry practices that came to be described as Empire forestry. These practices grew out of the same milieu as imperialism, and had their earliest expression in British India. Gregory Barton argues that Empire forestry also heavily influenced the forestry of the United States and that from there it spread to the Philippines. However, this article argues that the variant of Empire forestry developed in the Philippines was not particularly successful as its proponents failed to adequately adapt it to local social and political conditions.
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Thi, Mai Le. "Social Capital, Migration, and Social Integration." GATR Global Journal of Business and Social Science Review (GJBSSR) Vol.6(1) Jan-Mar 2018 6, no. 1 (February 18, 2018): 01–08. http://dx.doi.org/10.35609//gjbssr.2018.6.1(1).
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Objective - This paper focuses on exploring the ways in which social capital is utilised to promote the integration of Vietnamese women who married Taiwanese husbands into host families and the host. Methodology/Technique - Data was derived from a case study undertaken in 2014 on the Penghu Islands and in Taipei, Taiwan, with interviews and the observation of 31 people including Vietnamese women who married Taiwanese husbands, local people. Findings - Findings reveal the values and norms of responsibility of Vietnamese women in family that were educated themselves, have been practiced effectively by Vietnamese women married to Taiwanese husbands to integrate into their families. Research limitations/implications - The regulations and legal environment for immigrants have created favourable conditions for their integration into the host families. Traditional Vietnamese cooking skills are chosen by many Vietnamese women as a kind of social capital for their access to the Taiwanese job market. The social integration is reflected through social-economic, culture integration, and citizenship. Originality/value - It is hoped that study results will serve as the useful scientific basis for developing policies that promote the social integration of immigrants for the development of individuals and the social community. Type of Paper - Empirical Keywords: Social Capital; Social Integration; Migration Marriage. JEL Classification: C31, O15
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GIPSON, JESSICA D., and MICHELLE J. HINDIN. "INTER-GENERATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WOMEN'S FERTILITY, ASPIRATIONS FOR THEIR CHILDREN'S EDUCATION AND SCHOOL COMPLETION IN THE PHILIPPINES." Journal of Biosocial Science 47, no. 06 (December 9, 2014): 825–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932014000510.
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SummaryWomen's education is associated with positive social and health outcomes for women and their families, as well as greater opportunities and decision-making power for women. An extensive literature documents ways in which broader, societal changes have facilitated roles for women beyond reproduction, yet there is minimal exploration at the family level. This study used inter-generational cohort data from the Philippines to examine mothers' aspirations for their children's education, and how these aspirations predict children's subsequent educational attainment. Mothers' education, household wealth and a locally developed measure of women's status were positively associated with higher educational aspirations for children; however, only mothers with the highest fertility were less likely to desire their children to attend college or higher. Mothers' fertility and aspirations both significantly and independently predicted children's school completion. Together, these findings indicate that increased opportunities for Filipina women beyond childbearing may not only positively benefit these women themselves, but also future generations.
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Nguyen, Huong Thu. "Gendered Vulnerabilities in Times of Natural Disasters: Male-to-Female Violence in the Philippines in the Aftermath of Super Typhoon Haiyan." Violence Against Women 25, no. 4 (August 16, 2018): 421–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801218790701.
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The precarious situation faced by women and girls in the wake of climate-related disasters is illustrated through fieldwork conducted in Eastern Visayas in the Philippines, one of the regions most affected by Super Typhoon Haiyan in 2013. However, this article illustrates that these heightened levels of gendered violence faced by women and girls are not a result of the disaster alone; rather, they are rooted in the inequalities inherent in the social construction of gender prior to the catastrophe, which then become sharpened as efforts to survive become more urgent.
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Miller, Gary M. "Bourbon Social Engineering: Women and Conditions of Marriage in Eighteenth-Century Venezuela." Americas 46, no. 3 (January 1990): 261–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1007014.
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Historians have long debated the relationship between the Spanish Crown and its colonial subjects. The issue has taken on an additional dimension as our knowledge of the lives of women expands. Recently published works describe the statutes promulgated by royal authorities to regulate the institution of marriage. But what was the actual result of these laws once they crossed the Atlantic Ocean? Were they followed to the letter, partially enforced, or ignored? Did they apply to some groups and not to others? In order to answer these and other questions it seemed appropriate to focus upon the laws governing marriage and the effect of their implementation on a specific group of women—the wives of regular army officers who served in Venezuela during the last half of the eighteenth century.
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Kihato, Caroline Wanjiku. "Invisible lives, inaudible voices? The social conditions of migrant women in Johannesburg." African Identities 5, no. 1 (April 2007): 89–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14725840701253787.
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