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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'World politics – 20th century – Poetry'

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1

Delshad, Ja'far. "Religion, politics and poetry in Najaf in the early 20th century." Thesis, SOAS, University of London, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.503512.

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2

Travis, Isabelle. "The poetry of pain : trauma, madness and suffering in post-World War II American poetry." Thesis, University of Reading, 2011. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.553108.

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3

Askew, Joseph Benjamin. "The status of Tibet in the diplomacy of China, Britain, the United States and India, 1911-1959." Title page, contents and abstract only, 2002. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09pha8356.pdf.

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"June 2002" Bibliography: leaves 229-270. This thesis examines the changes in diplomacy of China, the West, Tibet and India from 1911 to 1951, while Tibet functioned as an independent country, and during 1951 to 1959 while under Chinese control. Tibet maintained its own currency, government, armed forces and way of life until 1959. The thesis also examines the cultural shifts in the political, social and military spheres in these countries. It assumes that the general world trend in political life has been towards increasingly intolerant and extreme politics. If Tibet remains part of China with little chance of resuming independence, it is because the Chinese government and people were quicker to adopt radical Western philosophies than the Tibetans were.
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4

Castle, Allan. "Collusion and challenge : major wars, domestic coalitions and revisionist states." Thesis, McGill University, 1997. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=41997.

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This dissertation examines the emergence of revisionism in the foreign policies of the great powers: it is concerned with the rise of 'challenger' states. Current approaches to the rise of challengers (arguments from 'structure', 'prudence', and 'historical sociology') are if generally useful also incomplete, leaving the emergence of several great power challengers not fully explained. This dissertation offers a new explanation, not as a replacement but as a complement to these theories, and in doing so accomplishes two tasks: first, it explains cases previously unaccounted-for; and second, it does so in a fashion that acknowledges the co-determination of domestic and international politics. The new model suggests that the seeds of challenges to international orders are often found in the wartime experience itself, in social pacts between elites and societal groups struck to achieve mobilization requirements. Violation of these pacts in the postwar period can in turn generate powerful political movements for the overthrow of both the domestic and international postwar orders. The explanation offered by this model is then applied to five cases of great power behaviour after major wars. While imperfect in its ability to account for great power behaviour in all these cases and thus requiring refinement, the model obtains sufficient support to warrant further exploration of these and other cases in future studies.
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Wasim, Naz. "Reconceptualising panregions at the end of the 20th century : a Pakistani perspective of world politics at the turn of the millennium." Thesis, University of Hull, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.402501.

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6

Mde, Vukani. ""Effulgent in the firmament" the politics of representation and the politics of reception in South Africa's 'poetry of commitment', 1968-1983." Thesis, University of Port Elizabeth, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/288.

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This dissertation re-examines an era in the production and reception of English language poetry in South Africa by black writers. Intellectually the 1970's was the Black Consciousness phase of South African history and very few aspects of life in the country were untouched by the intellectual movement led by Steve Biko and other young black student leaders. The aesthetic and literary output of the time, like all other facets of South African life, exhibited the influence and pressures brought to bear by Black Consciousness. Moreover, the Black Consciousness poets introduced the most vibrant and innovative phase for English language poetry produced in South Africa. It is my contention, however, that such vibrancy and innovation has consistently been compromised by unsympathetic, often hostile, and almost-always ill-informed criticism. The dissertation offers a critique of the academic and journalistic practice of criticism in South Africa. I argue that critical practice in South Africa has been engaged throughout the twentieth century in the discursive enforcement of ‘discipline’. In his Discipline and Punish (1977) the French post-structuralist philosopher Michel Foucault demonstrated how power is wielded against oppressed/suppressed groups through self regulated proscriptions, and argued that power is a discursive rather than a corporeal phenomenon. My dissertation follows Foucault in reading the critical reception of Black Consciousness poetry as the practice of disciplinary power. The dissertation also engages critically with the poetry of Oswald Mtshali, Mongane Serote and Sipho Sepamla, and argues that their work is the inscription of black subjectivity into the literary and cultural mainstream. It situates their work within wider 6 societal debates and definitions of ‘blackness’. In this regard use is made again of Michel Foucault’s insights and methodology of discourse analysis as shown in The Archaeology of Knowledge (1972). I argue that Oswald Mtshali’s work is a failed attempt at a dissection of apartheid and colonialism from a broadly Christian and humanist perspective. In my reading of Mongane Serote I explore the relationship between women’s bodies and the practice of representation. It is my contention that Serote is most concerned with claims of belonging, and this is shown through his extensive use of the trope of ‘Mother’. My discussion of the poetry of Sipho Sepamla focuses on language and (self- )representation, particularly the use of practices of naming in constructing subjectivity. My contention is that Sepamla ultimately abandons attempts at representation in favour of oppositional self-construction in language. In the concluding chapter I defend the thesis that the politics of discipline have prevented the broad critical establishment from gaining access to these discursive constructions of blackness in the committed poetry of South Africa.
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7

Milner, Wesley T. "Progress or Decline: International Political Economy and Basic Human Rights." Thesis, University of North Texas, 1999. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc2180/.

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This dissertation is a cross-national, empirical study of human rights conditions in a dynamic international political economy. The scope of the examination covers 176 developed and developing countries from 1980 through 1993. Through evaluating the numerous theoretical aspects of human rights conceptualization, I draw upon Shue's framework and consider whether there are indeed "basic rights" and which rights should fit into this category. Further, I address the debate between those who claim that these rights are truly universal (applying to all nations and individuals) and those who argue that the validity of a moral right is relative to indigenous cultures. In a similar vein, I empirically investigate whether various human rights are interdependent and indivisible, as some scholars argue, or whether there are inherent trade-offs between various rights provisions. In going beyond the fixation on a single aspect of human rights, I broadly investigate subsistence rights, security rights and political and economic freedom. While these have previously been addressed separately, there are virtually no studies that consider them together and the subsequent linkages between them. Ultimately, a pooled time-series cross-section model is developed that moves beyond the traditional concentration on security rights (also know as integrity of the person rights) and focuses on the more controversial subsistence rights (also known as basic human needs). By addressing both subsistence and security rights, I consider whether certain aspects of the changing international political economy affect these two groups of rights in different ways. A further delineation is made between OECD and non-OECD countries. The primary international focus is on the effects of global integration and the end of the Cold War. Domestic explanations that are connected with globalization include economic freedom, income inequality and democratization. These variables are subjected to bivariate and multivariate hypothesis testing including bivariate correlations, analysis of variance, and multiple OLS regression with robust standard errors.
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8

Perkins, Catherine. "The Shelf Life of Zora Cross." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/15882.

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Zora Cross (1890–1964) is considered a minor literary figure, but 100 years ago she was one of Australia’s best-known authors. Her book of poetry Songs of Love and Life (1917) sold thousands of copies during the First World War and met with rapturous reviews. She was one of the few writers of her time to take on subjects like sex and childbirth, and is still recognised for her poem Elegy on an Australian Schoolboy (1921), written after her brother was killed in the war. Zora Cross wrote an early history of Australian literature in 1921 and profiled women authors for the Australian Woman’s Mirror in the late 1920s and early 1930s. She corresponded with prominent literary figures such as Ethel Turner, Mary Gilmore and Eleanor Dark and drew vitriol from Norman Lindsay. This thesis presents new ways of understanding Zora Cross beyond a purely literary assessment, and argues that she made a significant contribution to Australian juvenilia, publishing history, war history, and literary history.
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9

Kinder, John Oliver. "Power in stalinist states: the personality cult of Nicolae Ceausescu." Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/91168.

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This study examines the Socialist Republic of Romania as a Stalinist state which employs a personality cult. The leader of a state is the focus of a personality cult, but he does not enjoy the status it gives without consent from elsewhere within the government. In order to determine where this power comes from, three possible sources are discussed. These are: Nicolae Ceausescu, president of Romania; the state bureaucracy; and the people. The Soviet Union, during the time of Stalin, is used as a comparative element. When Nicolae Ceausescu came to power he did so with the consent of the elite. As the Romanian elite are less inclined to support his policies, Ceausescu has had to continually take steps to stay ahead of the opposition. The Romanian people also lent their support to Ceausescu earlier, and have since become discontented with the regime. This study concludes that a leader with a personality cult must have some form of consent to come into power, but his personal characteristics will determine how he leads and whether or not he will be able to remain in power if that consent is withdrawn.
M.A.
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10

Bruneau, Quentin. "Knowing sovereigns : forms of knowledge and the changing practice of sovereign lending." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2016. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:127b0026-030f-417d-9cb8-f871936d6227.

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This thesis examines how sovereign lending, i.e. the practice of lending capital to sovereigns, has changed since the early nineteenth century. It tackles this question by investigating how lenders have thought about sovereigns for the past two centuries, focusing on the tools they have used to know and represent them. I argue that there was a critical shift in the early twentieth century in terms of the kinds of knowledge lenders deployed to know sovereigns. This shift differentiates the old sovereign lending from the new. In the old sovereign lending, merchant banking families such as the Rothschilds knew sovereigns through intensely personal relations based on gentility, whereas in the new sovereign lending, joint stock banks, credit rating agencies and international institutions largely came to know sovereigns through statistics. Though difficult to imagine nowadays, the description of sovereigns through quantifiable facts (the original definition of 'statistics') was revolutionary for early twentieth century lenders. Despite constituting the origins of sovereign credit ratings, this key shift has been overlooked in all major studies about sovereign debt. The new sovereign lending rose to prominence from the interwar period to the 1970s and now defines our world. The identification of this crucial shift is based on the development and application of the concept of forms of knowledge. Forms of knowledge refer to enduring ways of knowing and representing the constituent units of the international system used by international practitioners (e.g. diplomats, military strategists, financiers, and international lawyers). Examples of forms of knowledge include, but are not limited to, modern cartography, international treaties, statistics, gentility, and heraldry. The use of this concept is that it leads to a better understanding of how international practitioners and their practices undergo radical changes. In so doing, it provides a firmer empirical grasp on the question of how fundamental discontinuities arise in international relations.
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11

Pendegraft, Gregory. "Third World Decolonization: The Pan Africanist Movement in the Age of Nasserism." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2017. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc984267/.

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In the mid-twentieth century Egyptian President Gamal Abdel-Nasser, along with President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana rose to international prominence as leaders and visionaries who were able to achieve political independence in their respective home countries while attempting to shape a destiny for Africa that did not involve Western imperialism. For Nasser's part, he first secured independence for Egypt, then turned his attention to the Middle East, but soon became as active in the politics of Sub Saharan Africa, also known as black Africa, as he was in the Arab world. This thesis explores Nasser's forays into Sub Saharan Africa during the period of decolonization on the continent and how his aspirations for Africa were equally a part of his political agenda that came to be known as Nasserism. Considering Nasser was the leader of the Third bloc, Egypt's fate was tied to Africa just as much as it was to the Middle East. Beyond the aspects of Nasser's involvement in Africa, this work also explores the active role Africans played in their quest for independence from European colonizers. Many African leaders during this time were as prominent and as shrewd as Nasser and were committed to establishing an anti-imperialist continent while developing modern African states based on the principles of Pan Africanism. While this occurred, new countries began to enter Africa and it became up to the African heads of state to determine how much involvement they wanted from these outsiders and at what cost. As these many dynamics played out in Africa, Pan Africanism was simultaneously occurring in the United States that linked black America's fate with Africa in movements that emphasized black nationalism and Third World political ideology.
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12

Goodland, Giles. "Modernist poetry and film of the Home Front, 1939-45." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1992. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:cbc4f071-0e64-4a07-866d-ba83359262cb.

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This thesis is an exploration of the links between modernist literature and film and society at a period of historical crisis, in Gramscian terms a moment of national 'popular will'. In general, these works are informed by a greater organicity of form, replacing the previous avant-garde model of a serial or mechanical structure. This organicity, however, maintains an element of disjunction, in which, as with filmic montage, the organicity is constituted on the level of the work seen as a totality. Herbert Read's aesthetics are shown to develop with these changes in the Thirties and the war years. The work of H.D. and T.S. Eliot is explored in the light of these new structural elements, and the formal questioning of the subject through the interplay of 'we' and montages of location and address in the poems. The pre-war years are portrayed in these works as a time of shame, and the war as a possible means of redemption, perhaps through suffering, or through the new subjectivity of the wartime community. The documentary movement provides an opportunity to trace these formal changes in a historical and institutional context, and with the work of Dylan Thomas, the relations between mass and high culture, film and poetry, are investigated, as well as the representation of the Blitz, in which guilt is sublimated into celebratory transcendence. These aspects, and the adaptation of a European avant-garde to meet British cultural needs, are examined in the work of the Apocalyptic movement. The last structure of feeling is reconstruction, which is related to Herbert Read's thought, but shown to inform all these other works and to be a linking-point between ideology and the structure of the text, formed as an organic unity that promises a reconstructed post-war society.
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13

Edford, Rachel Lynn 1979. "“The Step of Iron Feet”: Formal Movements in American World War II Poetry." Thesis, University of Oregon, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1794/11981.

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We have too frequently approached American World War II poetry with assumptions about modern poetry based on readings of the influential British Great War poets, failing to distinguish between WWI and WWII and between the British and American contexts. During the Second World War, the Holocaust and the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki obliterated the line many WWI poems reinforced between the soldier's battlefront and the civilian's homefront, authorizing for the first time both civilian and soldier perspectives. Conditions on the American homefront--widespread isolationist and anti-Semitic attitudes, America's late entry into the war, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the Japanese internment, and the African American "Double V Campaign" to fight fascism overseas and racism at home--were just some of the volatile conditions poets in the US grappled with during WWII. In their poems, war shapes and threatens the identities of civilians and soldiers, women and men, African Americans and Jews, and verse form itself becomes a weapon against war's assault on identity. Charles Reznikoff, Muriel Rukeyser, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Richard Wilbur mobilize and challenge the authority of traditional poetic forms to defend the self against social, political, and physical assaults. The objective, free-verse testimony form of Reznikoff's long poem Holocaust (1975) registers his mistrust of lyric subjectivity and of the musical effects of traditional poetry. In Rukeyser's free-verse and traditional-verse forms, personal experiences and public history collide to create a unifying poetry during wartime. Brooks, like Rukeyser, posits poetry's ability to protect soldiers and civilians from war's threat to their identities. In Brooks's poems, however, only traditionally formal poems can withstand the war's destruction. Wilbur also employs conventional forms to control war's disorder. The individual speakers in his poems avoid becoming nameless war casualties by grounding themselves in military and literary history. Through a series of historically informed close readings, this dissertation illuminates a neglected period in the history of American poetry and argues that mid-century formalism challenges--not retreats from--twentieth-century atrocities.
Committee in charge: Karen Jackson Ford, Chairperson; John Gage, Member; Paul Peppis, Member; Cecilia Enjuto Rangel, Outside Member
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14

Gibson, Donald. "Twentieth-century poetry and science : science in the poetry of Hugh MacDiarmid, Judith Wright, Edwin Morgan, and Miroslav Holub." Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/8059.

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The aim of this thesis is to arrive at a characterisation of twentieth century poetry and science by means of a detailed study of the work of four poets who engaged extensively with science and whose writing lives spanned the greater part of the period. The study of science in the work of the four chosen poets, Hugh MacDiarmid (1892 – 1978), Judith Wright (1915 – 2000), Edwin Morgan (1920 – 2010), and Miroslav Holub (1923 – 1998), is preceded by a literature survey and an initial theoretical chapter. This initial part of the thesis outlines the interdisciplinary history of the academic subject of poetry and science, addressing, amongst other things, the challenges presented by the episodes known as the ‘two cultures' and the ‘science wars'. Seeking to offer a perspective on poetry and science more aligned to scientific materialism than is typical in the interdiscipline, a systemic challenge to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) is put forward in the first chapter. Additionally, the founding work of poetry and science, I. A. Richards's Science and Poetry (1926), is assessed both in the context in which it was written, and from a contemporary viewpoint; and, as one way to understand science in poetry, a theory of the creative misreading of science is developed, loosely based on Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence (1973). The detailed study of science in poetry commences in Chapter II with Hugh MacDiarmid's late work in English, dating from his period on the Shetland Island of Whalsay (1933 – 1941). The thesis in this chapter is that this work can be seen as a radical integration of poetry and science; this concept is considered in a variety of ways including through a computational model, originally suggested by Robert Crawford. The Australian poet Judith Wright, the subject of Chapter III, is less well known to poetry and science, but a detailed engagement with physics can be identified, including her use of four-dimensional imagery, which has considerable support from background evidence. Biology in her poetry is also studied in the light of recent work by John Holmes. In Chapter IV, science in the poetry of Edwin Morgan is discussed in terms of its origin and development, from the perspective of the mythologised science in his science fiction poetry, and from the ‘hard' technological perspective of his computer poems. Morgan's work is cast in relief by readings which are against the grain of some but not all of his published comments. The thesis rounds on its theme of materialism with the fifth and final chapter which studies the work of Miroslav Holub, a poet and practising scientist in communist-era Prague. Holub's work, it is argued, represents a rare and important literary expression of scientific materialism. The focus on materialism in the thesis is not mechanistic, nor exclusive of the domain of the imagination; instead it frames the contrast between the original science and the transformed poetic version. The thesis is drawn together in a short conclusion.
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15

Mecum, Mark M. "Solving Alliance Cohesion: NATO Cohesion After the Cold War." Ohio : Ohio University, 2007. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?ohiou1180549294.

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16

Boykin, Dennis Joseph. "Wartime text and context: Cyril Connolly's Horizon." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/1959.

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This thesis examines the literary journal Horizon, its editor Cyril Connolly, and a selection of its editorial articles, poems, short stories and essays in the context of the Second World War, from 1939-45. Analyses of these works, their representation of wartime experience, and their artistic merit, serve as evidence of a shared and sustained literary engagement with the war. Collectively, they demonstrate Horizon’s role as one of the primary outlets for British literature and cultural discourse during the conflict. Previous assessments of the magazine as an apolitical organ with purely aesthetic concerns have led to enduring critical neglect and misappraisal. This thesis shows that, contrary to the commonly held view, Horizon consistently offered space for political debate, innovative criticism, and war-relevant content. It argues that Horizon’s wartime writing is indicative of the many varied types of literary response to a war that was all but incomprehensible for those who experienced it. These poems, stories and essays offer a distinctive and illuminating insight into the war and are proof that a viable literary culture thrived during the war years. This thesis also argues that Horizon, as a periodical, should be considered as a creative entity in and of itself, and is worthy of being studied in this light. The magazine’s constituent parts, interesting enough when considered separately, are shaped, informed, and granted new shades of meaning by their position alongside other works in Horizon. Chapters in the thesis cover editorials and editing, poetry, short stories, political essays, and critical essays respectively. Analyses of individual works are situated in the context of larger concerns in order to demonstrate the coherence of debate and discourse that characterised Horizon’s wartime run. In arguing that Horizon is a singular creative entity worthy of consideration in its own right, this thesis locates itself within the emerging field of periodical studies. Further, by arguing that the magazine demonstrates the value of Second World War literature, it articulates with other recent attempts to reassess the scope and quality of that literature. More specifically, this thesis offers the first focused and in-depth analysis of Horizon’s formative years.
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Boykin, Dennis Joseph. "Wartime text and context Cyril Connolly's Horizon /." University of Sydney, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/1959.

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Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
This thesis examines the literary journal Horizon, its editor Cyril Connolly, and a selection of its editorial articles, poems, short stories and essays in the context of the Second World War, from 1939-45. Analyses of these works, their representation of wartime experience, and their artistic merit, serve as evidence of a shared and sustained literary engagement with the war. Collectively, they demonstrate Horizon’s role as one of the primary outlets for British literature and cultural discourse during the conflict. Previous assessments of the magazine as an apolitical organ with purely aesthetic concerns have led to enduring critical neglect and misappraisal. This thesis shows that, contrary to the commonly held view, Horizon consistently offered space for political debate, innovative criticism, and war-relevant content. It argues that Horizon’s wartime writing is indicative of the many varied types of literary response to a war that was all but incomprehensible for those who experienced it. These poems, stories and essays offer a distinctive and illuminating insight into the war and are proof that a viable literary culture thrived during the war years. This thesis also argues that Horizon, as a periodical, should be considered as a creative entity in and of itself, and is worthy of being studied in this light. The magazine’s constituent parts, interesting enough when considered separately, are shaped, informed, and granted new shades of meaning by their position alongside other works in Horizon. Chapters in the thesis cover editorials and editing, poetry, short stories, political essays, and critical essays respectively. Analyses of individual works are situated in the context of larger concerns in order to demonstrate the coherence of debate and discourse that characterised Horizon’s wartime run. In arguing that Horizon is a singular creative entity worthy of consideration in its own right, this thesis locates itself within the emerging field of periodical studies. Further, by arguing that the magazine demonstrates the value of Second World War literature, it articulates with other recent attempts to reassess the scope and quality of that literature. More specifically, this thesis offers the first focused and in-depth analysis of Horizon’s formative years.
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18

Burns, Nathan. "The Caspian Region: Arena for Clashing Civilizations?" Honors in the Major Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2006. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETH/id/1208.

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This item is only available in print in the UCF Libraries. If this is your Honors Thesis, you can help us make it available online for use by researchers around the world by following the instructions on the distribution consent form at http://library.ucf.edu/Systems/DigitalInitiatives/DigitalCollections/InternetDistributionConsentAgreementForm.pdf You may also contact the project coordinator, Kerri Bottorff, at kerri.bottorff@ucf.edu for more information.
Bachelors
Sciences
Political Science
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19

Skold, Martin. "Winning a race with no finish line : assessing the strategy of interstate competition." Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/12985.

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This dissertation offers a framework for understanding the strategies of states engaged in competition for regional hegemony. Although international relations literature refers extensively to such competition and obliquely to states' strategies, to date little has been done to show how states' strategies in such competition may be analyzed. Drawing on a variety of strategic literature, this dissertation synthesizes a theoretical approach to analyzing the strategies of states engaged in regional security competition. Employing insights drawn from business strategy, this dissertation argues for an essentially asymmetric understanding of fundamental policy goals for states engaged in competition for regional hegemony, with one state attempting to maintain a dominant position and another attempting, by focusing limited resources, to supplant it. The competition is understood metaphorically (based on an anecdote from the end of the Cold War) as a “race with no finish line,” with the reigning hegemon attempting to extend the race and the challenger attempting to create a finish line and cross it. With homage to realism, liberalism, and constructivism, possible state goals are categorized as belonging to three realms: security, welfare, and intangible goals. These are used as metrics for a state's success or failure in any given competitive scenario, as well as the resources at its disposal. Drawing on military strategic literature, this thesis then applies decision-cycle analysis to state competitive behavior. The conclusions from this analysis are then synthesized into a framework for analysis of similar regional competitive scenarios, the first such framework yet devised for such purposes. A case study: the “Dreadnought Race” between Britain and Germany prior to World War One, is then examined, in which states' performance is analyzed in the competitive scenario in light of the above strategic precepts.
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Grimsel, Naadirah. "Changing world order : the Republic of Turkey's rise as a middle power." Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/86391.

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Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Changes in world order have caused major shifts in the global positioning of states at the international level. The end of the Cold War ushered in a new power structure that shifted from a bipolar arrangement to a multipolar disposition. The emergence of this new world order allowed for emerging and developing states, such as Turkey, the opportunity to fill gaps left by the power vacuum created by the new multipolar power arrangement. This led the Turkish state on its path to become a middle power within the new world order. To assess the impact of changing world orders in the promotion of Turkey as a middle power in the new order, this study uses Coxian Critical Theory and the social relations of forces framework to account for Turkey’s middle power ascent. The framework developed by Robert Cox consists of three aspects, namely world orders, forms of state and the social relations of production. The change in world order both in the post-Cold War and post-2001 era has caused fundamental shifts within the Turkish state, both in terms of forms of state and in the social relations of production. Changes in the forms of state of the Turkish Republic following the end of the Cold War allowed for the creation of more robust civil society organizations, and a state that was transformed by the spread of international norms that originated at the world order level. International norms at the world order level not only affected the forms of state, but also the social relations of production and the political economy of Turkey. As a result changes in the forms of state and social relations of production informed by changes at the world order level, influenced the creation and execution of a proactive autonomous and internationally geared Turkish foreign policy, which is indicative of a middle power.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Aanpassings in die wêreld orde het grootskaalse verskuiwings op internasionale vlak in die globale positionering van state te weeg gebring. Die einde van die Koue Oorlog het ontwikkel in ‘n nuwe mag struktuur wat beweeg het van bipolêre magskikking tot multi-polêre ingesteldheid. Die opkoms van hierdie nuwe wêreld orde het vir opkomende en ontwikkelende state, soos Turkye, die geleentheid gebied om in rolle in te tree wat ontstaan het as gevolg van die magsleemte wat veroorsaak is deur die nuwe multi-polêre orde. Die faktore het daartoe bygedra dat Turkye ‘n nuwe rol as ‘n intermedïere moondheid (‘middle power’) begin aanneem het. Hierdie studie het die Kritiese Teorie van Robert Cox gebruik om te bepaal wat die impak is van die veranderende wêreld orde op die ontwikkeling van Turkye as ‘n intermedïere moondheid in die nuwe wêreld orde, asook die mag van sosiale verwantskappe (‘social relations of forces’) raamwerk om rekenskap te gee and Turkye se rol as intermedïere moondheid. Die raamwerk wat deur Robert Cox ontwikkel is bestaan uit drie aspekte; die wêreld ordes, staatsvorme, en die sosiale verwantskappe van produksie. In beide die post- Koue Oorlog en die post-2001 era het die verandering in wêreld orde merkwaardige verskuiwings in die Turkse staat veroorsaak; beide in terme van die aard van die staat asook die sosiale verwantskappe van produksie. Teen die einde van die Koue Oorlog het die veranderinge in die aard van die staat van die Turkse Republiek toegelaat dat meer kragtige burgerlike samelewingsorganisasies kon bestaan, sowel as ‘n staat wat omskep was deur die verspreiding van internasionale norme, wat ontstaan het op wêreld orde vlak. Hierdie internasionale norme het nie net die forms of state vorm of aard van die staat beïnvloed nie, maar ook die sosiale verwantskappe van produksie en die politieke ekonomie van Turkye. Uit die aard van die saak het veranderinge in die vorm van die staat en sosiale verwantskappe van produksie wat veroorsaak was deur die verandering op wêreld orde vlak, gelei tot die ontstaan en ontwikkeling van ‘n pro-aktiewe, selfstandige en internationaal gerigte Turkse buitelandse beleid. Die laasgenoemde dui aan op Turkye se ewolusie as ʼn intermedïere moondheid.
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21

Hutton, Daniel Mckinley. "A geopolitical analysis of U.S. alliance building within the Middle East." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/43087.

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The concept of geopolitics - is reconsidered as a viable framework in analyzing the power relationship between nation states and then applied to the Middle East. After reviewing the historical development of geopolitics, it is modified, and then set against alternative approaches in explaining Middle Eastern alliances. Ultimately, geopolitics is used in order to rationalize America's alliance network within the region.
Master of Arts
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22

Kokkinos, Stephanie Helen. "China in Africa: The use of soft power and its implications for a global peaceful rise." Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/20172.

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Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Soft power is more relevant now than ever before. In fact, in the current world system it has become an important element in exercising state power and mapping out leadership strategies. This assignment attempts to analyse the use of soft power as a post-Cold War foreign policy strategy on the part of China. Chinese relations with the African continent are assessed to prove the increasing rate at which China has expended trade and diplomatic relations in the past two decades, and to determine the degree to which soft power is contributing to China’s prospects of a harmonious rise to a position of global power. China’s foreign policy is ideologically underpinned by nationalism and confucianism. This stance is based on the need to protect and promote the economic and social stability of the state, as well as to secure a sound diplomatic identity in the international arena. For this reason, China has expanded economic interests abroad, particularly, looking upon Africa as a source of mutual development and investement, economic cooperation and an enhanced network for trade. This has lead to the growth of ‘soft’ ties between the Chinese nation and many African states, through the provision of aid, diplomatic cooperation on policy issues and the sharing of cultural values and institutional norms. In this way, China has been able to promote the perception of a peaceful rise to power and make a valuable contribution to the Chinese goal of constructing a harmonious world. Concluding a thorough analysis of China’s foreign policy behaviour it is determined that China-Africa relations are based, at least in part, on soft power, as a means to gain increased international influence. This is contended by the likeness between the behaviour advocated by soft power theory and that of Chinese interaction with African states. Furthermore, this partnership can be understood as a potential global shift towards multilateralism and the belief in an emerging international order that organised by regionalised powers that cooperate with each other on international platforms. The theory of constructivism, particularly its emaphasis on the roles of ideas, identities and institutions, is a valuable perspective to consider in approaching this discussion of China as a peacefully emerging global power.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: ‘Sagtemag’ is nou meer relevante vandag as ooit tevore. Dit is inderdaad ‘n belangrike element in die uitoefening van staat mag en leierskap strategieë in die huidige wêreld. Hierdie werkstuk poog om die gebruik van sagte mag te ontleed as ‘n buitelandse beleid strategie op die deel van Sjina sedert die einde van die Koue Oorlog. Sjinese verhoudings met Arika word geassesseer om te bewys die toenemende tempo waarteen diplomatieke betrekkinge in die afgelope twee dekades bestee het, en die graad aan wat sagte mag dra Sjina se vooruitsigte van ‘n harmonieuse aanleiding tot wêreld mag te bepaal. Sjina se buitelandse beleid is ideologies ondersteun deur nasionalisme en Confucianisme. Hierdie standpunt is gebaseer op die behoefte om die ekonomiese stabiliteit van die staat te beskerm en om ‘n gesonde diplomatieke indentiteit te verseker op ‘n internasionale vlak. Om hierdie rede het Sjina uigebrei om die ekonomiese belange in die buiteland, veral op soek op die Afrika-vasteland as ‘n bron van wedersydse ontwikkeling en belegging, ekonomiese samewerking en ‘n groter handelsmerk netwerk. Dit het gelei tot die groei van die ‘sagte’ bande tussen Sjina en baie Afrika-lande, deur die voorsiening van fonds, diplomatieke samewerking oor beleidskwessies en die deel van kulturele waardes en institusionele norme. Op hierdie manier het Sjina die persepsie van ‘n vreedsame opkoms by wêreld mag te bevorder en ‘n waardevolle bydrae tot die Sjinese doel vir ‘n ‘Harmonious World’ te bou. Die sluiting van ‘n deeglike ontleding van Sjina se buitelandse beleid word bepaal dat Sjina-Afrika verhoudings is op sagtemag gebou om ‘n verhoogde internaionale invloed te kry. Dit is aangevoer deur die gelykenis tussen sagtemag teorie en die gedrag wat bepleit word deur Sjinese interaksie met Afrika-lande. Verder kan hierdie vennootskap verstaan word as ‘n moontlike globale verskuiwing na multilateralisme en die potensiële van ‘n nuwe internationale bestel wat gereël is deur regionalisering magte. Konstruktivisme, veral die teorie se nadruk op die rolle van idees, indentiteite en instellings, is ook ‘n waardevolle perspektief te oorweeg in die nader van heirdie bespreking van Sjina as ‘n vreedsame wyse opkomende wêreld mag.
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23

Mushohwe, Knowledge. "An analysis of selected cartoons published during Zimbabwe's 2008 elections." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/1609.

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During Zimbabwe’s 2008 harmonised elections the country’s media laws had a direct impact on the way editorial cartoonists expressed themselves. Although the online newspapers were unregulated and the print media published under Zimbabwe’s media laws, Public Order and Security Act and Access to Information and Protection of Privacy act - the editorial cartoons from both sources show deliberate bias towards one candidate and contempt towards the main rival. The study contextualises the understanding of the editorial cartoon, as practised in an environment of freedom of speech and defined by the four categories identified by Press (1981) and Manning and Phiddian (2004), and delineates the effect of media laws on the newspaper industry in Zimbabwe. The four categories of editorial cartoons identified are descriptive editorial cartoons, laughing satirical editorial cartoons, destructive satirical editorial cartoons, and savage indignation editorial cartoons. The study reviews eight editorial cartoons, read using a semiotic framework investigating non-verbal communication, as defined and suggested by Du Plooy (1996), and a text and language grid, as suggested by Leech (1974), according to the criteria of symbols/metaphors, exaggeration/distortion, stereotypes, caricature, irony, captions, and background knowledge, as developed by Fetsko (2001). A comparative analysis of the cartoons reveals that objectives and functions of the unregulated zimonline.co.za and the regulated the Herald newspapers are the same. They constitute propagandistic representations of Zimbabwean politics that are more an extension of political ideology than they are a reflection of the country’s sociopolitical landscape.
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Ghattas, Micheline Germanos. "The Consolidation of the Consociational Democracy in Lebanon: The Challenges to Democracy in Lebanon." PDXScholar, 2013. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/1415.

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This dissertation looks at democracy in Lebanon, a country that has a pluralistic society with many societal cleavages. The subject of this study is the consolidation of democracy in Lebanon, described by Arend Lijphart as a "consociational democracy". The research question and sub-question posed are: 1- How consolidated is democracy in Lebanon? 2- What are the challenges facing the consolidation of democracy in Lebanon? The preamble of the 1926 Lebanese Constitution declares the country to be a parliamentary democratic republic. The political regime is a democracy, but one that is not built on the rule of the majority in numbers, since the numbers do not reflect the history of the country and its distinguishing characteristics. The division of power is built on religion, which defies the concept prevailing in western democracies of the separation between church and state. As the internal and the external conditions change, sometimes in a violent manner, the democracy in the country still survives. Today, after the war that ravaged Lebanon from 1975 to 1990, the Syrian occupation that lasted until 2005, the Israeli war in the summer of 2006, and the roadblocks in the face of the overdue presidential election in 2008, democracy is still struggling to stay alive in the country. There is no denying or ignoring the challenges and the attempts against democracy in Lebanon from 1975 to the present. Even with these challenges, there are some strong elements that let democracy survive all these predicaments. The reasons and events of the 1975-1995 war are still being sorted out and only history will clear that up. Can we say today that the Consociational democracy in Lebanon is consolidated? To answer this question Linz & Stepan's three elements of a consolidated democracy are used as the criteria: the constitution of the land, people's attitude towards democracy and their behavior. The analysis examines the Lebanese Constitution, surveys about people's attitude towards democracy, and reported events about their behavior, such as political demonstrations and political violence narrated in the media. The findings of this study show that although the Lebanese find democracy as being the only game in town, the consolidation of democracy in the country still faces some challenges, both internal and external. The study also shows that the criteria used for western democracies need to be adjusted to apply to a society such as the one in Lebanon: plural, religious and traditional.
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25

De, Santiago Ramos Simone C. "Dem Schwerte Muss Der Pflug Folgen: Űber-Peasants and National Socialist Settlements in the Occupied Eastern Territories during World War Two." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2007. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3681/.

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German industrialization in the nineteenth century had brought forward a variety of conflicting ideas when it came to the agrarian community. One of them was the agrarian romantic movement led by Adam Műller, who feared the loss of the traditional German peasant. Műller influenced Reichdeutsche Richard Walther Darré, who argued that large cities were the downfall of the German people and that only a healthy peasant stock would be able to ‘save' Germany. Under Darré's definition, “Geopolitik” was the defense of the land, the defense with Pflug und Schwert (plow and sword) by Wehrbauern, an ‘Űberbauer-fusion' of soldier and peasant. In order to accomplish these goals, new settlements had to be established while moving from west to east. The specific focus of this study is on the original Hegewald resettlement ideas of Richard Walther Darré and how his philosophy was taken over by Himmler and fit into his personal needs and creed after 1941. It will shed some light on the interaction of Darré and Himmler and the notorious internal fights and power struggles between the various governmental agencies involved. The Ministry for Food and Agriculture under the leadership of Darré was systematically pushed into the background and all previous, often publicly announced re-settlement policies were altered; Darré was pushed aside once the eastern living space was actually occupied.
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26

Boauod, Marai. "The Making of Modern Egypt: the Egyptian Ulama as Custodians of Change and Guardians of Muslim Culture." PDXScholar, 2016. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/3102.

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Scholarship on the modern history of the Middle East has undergone profound revision in the previous three decades or so. Many earlier perceptions, largely based on modernization theory, have been either contested or modified. However, the perception of the Egyptian ulama (the traditionally-educated, religious Muslim scholars) in academic scholarship remains largely affected by the legacy of hypotheses of the modernization theory. Old assumptions that the Egyptian ulama were submissive to political power and passive players incapable of accommodating, let alone of fathoming, conditions of the modern world, and who chose or were forced to retreat from this world, losing much, if not all, of their relevance and significance, still infuse the scholarly literature. Making use of materials obtained from the Egyptian National Archives, this study offers an examination of modern legal reform in Egypt from the nineteenth century through the first part of the twentieth century with the ulama and their legal institutions in mind. As the findings of this study effectively illustrate, the Egyptian ulama were by no means submissive. Rather, they were patient. Far from being passive agents of the past, the Egyptian ulama were active participants who played a critical role in the building of modern Egypt. The ulama had at their disposal sustained social and moral influence, a long-standing position as community leaders, a reputation as defenders and representatives of Islam, the power to validate or invalidate the political establishment by means of public and doctrinal legitimization, and the final authority over laws of family and personal status. Through these strengths, the ulama were able to influence the direction of change and to impact its scope and nature during transitional period that witnessed the making and remaking of modern Egypt. Considering the nature of changes that they allowed to be introduced to the shari-based justice system and the ones they resisted, as well as their stance regarding social matters, the Egyptian ulama comprehended and recognized modernity as useful. Advanced techniques had to be embraced to strengthen state institutions. However, the ulama thwarted massive and sudden adoption of modernity's cultural elements, so that Egypt would not become a chaotic country and go astray. On the weight of their position as the ultimate authority over family law, the Egyptian ulama blocked rapid social change imposed from the top. Alterations to family law and the social structure were undertaken gradually and with a great deal of delicacy. Therefore, the long-standing social order was not suddenly destroyed and replaced with a new one. Instead, changes to the long-standing social structure were allowed to evolve slowly, while the core was largely preserved. The ulama's far-reaching plan, which was realized in the long run, was to maintain Islam's position in modern Egypt as a guide and as the main source of legitimacy. As will be shown in this study, the history of the Egyptian ulama reveals not passivity, detachment, or submission but careful, and deliberate action.
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27

Fanstone, Ben Paul. "The pursuit of the 'good forest' in Kenya, c.1890-1963 : the history of the contested development of state forestry within a colonial settler state." Thesis, University of Stirling, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1893/25290.

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This is a study of the creation and evolution of state forestry within colonial Kenya in social, economic, and political terms. Spanning Kenya’s entire colonial period, it offers a chronological account of how forestry came to Kenya and grew to the extent of controlling almost two million hectares of land in the country, approximately 20 per cent of the most fertile and most populated upland (above 1,500 metres) region of central Kenya . The position of forestry within a colonial state apparatus that paradoxically sought to both ‘protect’ Africans from modernisation while exploiting them to establish Kenya as a ‘white man’s country’ is underexplored in the country’s historiography. This thesis therefore clarifies this role through an examination of the relationship between the Forest Department and its African workers, Kenya’s white settlers, and the colonial government. In essence, how each of these was engaged in a pursuit for their own idealised ‘good forest’. Kenya was the site of a strong conservationist argument for the establishment of forestry that typecast the country’s indigenous population as rapidly destroying the forests. This argument was bolstered against critics of the financial extravagance of forestry by the need to maintain and develop the forests of Kenya for the express purpose of supporting the Uganda railway. It was this argument that led the colony’s Forest Department along a path through the contradictions of colonial rule. The European settlers of Kenya are shown as being more than just a mere thorn in the side of the Forest Department, as their political power represented a very real threat to the department’s hegemony over the forests. Moreover, Kenya’s Forest Department deeply mistrusted private enterprise and constantly sought to control and limit the unsustainable exploitation of the forests. The department was seriously underfunded and understaffed until the second colonial occupation of the 1950s, a situation that resulted in a general ad hoc approach to forest policy. The department espoused the rhetoric of sustainable exploitation, but had no way of knowing whether the felling it authorised was actually sustainable, which was reflected in the underdevelopment of the sawmilling industry in Kenya. The agroforestry system, shamba, (previously unexplored in Kenya’s colonial historiography) is shown as being at the heart of forestry in Kenya and extremely significant as perhaps the most successful deployment of agroforestry by the British in colonial Africa. Shamba provided numerous opportunities to farm and receive education to landless Kikuyu in the colony, but also displayed very strong paternalistic aspects of control, with consequential African protest, as the Forest Department sought to create for itself a loyal and permanent forest workforce. Shamba was the keystone of forestry development in the 1950s, and its expansion cemented the position of forestry in Kenya as a top-down, state-centric agent of economic and social development.
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Lynch, Éadaoín. "'This may be my war after all' : the non-combatant poetry of W.H. Auden, Louis MacNeice, Dylan Thomas, and Stevie Smith." Thesis, University of St Andrews, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10023/16566.

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This research aims to illuminate how and why war challenges the limits of poetic representation, through an analysis of non-combatant poetry of the Second World War. It is motivated by the question: how can one portray, represent, or talk about war? Literature on war poetry tends to concentrate on the combatant poets of the First World War, or their influence, while literature on the Second World War tends to focus on prose as the only expression of literary war experience. With a historicist approach, this thesis advances our understanding of both the Second World War, and our inherited notions of 'war poetry,' by parsing its historiography, and investigating the role critical appraisals have played in marginalising this area of poetic response. This thesis examines four poets as case studies in this field of research-W.H. Auden, Louis MacNeice, Dylan Thomas, and Stevie Smith-and evaluates them on both their individual explorations of poetic tone, faith systems, linguistic innovations, subversive performativity, and their collective trajectory towards a commitment to represent the war in their poetry. The findings from this research illustrate how too many critical appraisals have minimised or misrepresented Second World War poetry, and how the poets responded with a self-reflexivity that bespoke a deeper concern with how war is remembered and represented. The significance of these findings is breaking down the notion of objective fact in poetic representations of war, which are ineluctably subjective texts. These findings also offer insight into the 'failure' of poetry to represent war as a necessary part of war representation and prompt a rethinking of who has the 'right' experience-or simply the right-to talk about war.
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Feinman, David Eric. "Divided government and congressional foreign policy a case study of the post-World War II era in American government." Master's thesis, University of Central Florida, 2011. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/4891.

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The purpose of this research is to analyze the relationship between the executive and legislative branches of American federal government, during periods within which these two branches are led by different political parties, to discover whether the legislative branch attempts to independently legislate and enact foreign policy by using "the power of the purse" to either appropriate in support of or refuse to appropriate in opposition to military engagement abroad. The methodology for this research includes the analysis and comparison of certain variables, including public opinion, budgetary constraints, and the relative majority of the party that holds power in one or both chambers, and the ways these variables may impact the behavior of the legislative branch in this regard. It also includes the analysis of appropriations requests made by the legislative branch for funding military engagement in rejection of requests from the executive branch for all military engagements that occurred during periods of divided government from 1946 through 2009.
ID: 029809199; System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader.; Mode of access: World Wide Web.; Thesis (M.A.)--University of Central Florida, 2011.; Includes bibliographical references (p. 110-112).
M.A.
Masters
Political Science
Sciences
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Matsubara, Nao. "The prospect for Okinawa's initiative : towards getting rid of the U.S. Military presence in Okinawa." Title page, contents and abstract only, 2002. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09ARM/09armm4344.pdf.

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Includes bibliographical references (leaves [56]-[62]) Focusses on issues concerning the U.S. military presence on the island. Elaborates on Okinawa's suffering due to the military bases which have hindered Okinawa's economic development, created serious pollution and encouraged crime
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31

Goncalves, De Aranjo Passos Stéphanie. "Une guerre des étoiles: les tournées de ballet dans la diplomatie culturelle de la Guerre froide, 1945-1968 /cStéphanie Gonçalves de Aranjo-Passos." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/209106.

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Ma thèse de doctorat explore les tournées de ballet des « six grandes » compagnies mondiales pendant la Guerre froide (1945-1968) :ballet de l’Opéra de Paris, Royal Ballet de Covent Garden, Bolchoï et Kirov, New York City Ballet et American Ballet. Elle envisage le ballet comme un outil de diplomatie culturelle transnationale, avec un focus particulier sur les acteurs, qu’ils soient institutionnels, artistiques ou commerciaux. Outre un aspect quantitatif qui nous a amené à cartographier les tournées, il s’agit d’une histoire incarnée par des femmes et des hommes − les danseurs − dont le métier est de tourner sur les scènes internationales, encadrés par des administrateurs et des gouvernements, qui n’ont pas les mêmes priorités et agendas les uns et les autres.

Cette recherche met justement en avant les tensions, les difficultés et les dynamiques entre les différents acteurs. La thèse se construit autour de tournées représentatives du lien ténu entre danse et politique, des épisodes qui mettent en valeur les points chauds de cette Guerre froide, ayant comme point de départ ou d’arrivée Londres et Paris.

La description de la danse comme un langage, une pratique physique et un métier permet de comprendre en quoi la danse peut être un outil de communication politique et comment il a été utilisé comme tel dans la longue durée et en particulier pendant la guerre froide. Les différentes échelles – le passage régulier de la macro-histoire à la micro-histoire et inversement ainsi que les flux d’échanges culturels multiples à l’échelle internationale – ont permis de mettre en avant une multiplicité d'acteurs (artistiques, gouvernementaux, commerciaux). La constitution du mythe de la danseuse étoile, et ses représentations, résonne également avec d’autres figures mythiques construites dans la Guerre froide, comme celle de l’astronaute.
Doctorat en Histoire, art et archéologie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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Bernardo, Y. Garcia Luis Angel. "Le Ventre des Belges: miracle économique et restauration des forces de travail :origines et développement de la politique alimentaire du second immédiat après-guerre, 1914-1948." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/209052.

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Au cours du second immédiat après-guerre, la Belgique continue être soumise à une « économie de disette » qui s’est épanouie sous la seconde occupation. Afin d’assurer le ravitaillement alimentaire de la population et le maintien d’une activité économique, la puissance publique est contrainte d’organiser l’économie nationale traditionnellement acquise à la liberté du marché. Le temps de la pénurie alimentaire mondiale, la politique alimentaire va diriger l’approvisionnement général du pays par la stabilisation des prix et salaires, les importations, la mobilisation du secteur alimentaire, la distribution de l’alimentation, le rationnement et enfin la répression du « marché noir ». En dépit de la cherté des approvisionnements extérieurs et la régulation de la pénurie au niveau mondial, les gouvernements belges qui se succèdent depuis la Libération s’attachent à l’amélioration du niveau de vie d’une population affaiblie par l’occupation. Cette restauration des forces de travail est un corollaire indispensable à la reprise de l’activité économique et à la reconstruction du pays mais aussi au maintien de l’ordre établi et à la restauration politique. Cet objectif alimentaire a été assigné en exil et dans Bruxelles occupée par les élites dirigeantes – qu’elles soient politiques, économiques ou syndicales – dans une rare unanimité au même titre que la défense d’un « franc fort ». Le Parti communiste, qui participe au pouvoir dès le premier Gouvernement d’Union nationale de la Libération, va aussi adhérer à ces deux objectifs et se voit attribuer le lourd et ingrat portefeuille du Ravitaillement pendant la plus grande partie de son existence qui s’étale de septembre 1944 à décembre 1948.

Le choix assumé par une Belgique solvable d’une « politique d’abondance » aux dépens d’une planification des investissements se démarque des choix opérés par la France, les Pays-Bas ou la Grande-Bretagne impécunieux mais obsédés par la modernisation de leurs appareils de production respectifs. L’objectif belge d’apporter à la population – à coup de subventions massives – l’indispensable puis l’utile mais aussi le superflu va se maintenir jusqu’à la libération progressive des transactions et des prix et participe à la restauration rapide de l’économie belge transformatrice et exportatrice. Dès la fin de la guerre en Europe, un apparent « miracle économique » se produit en Belgique avec la reprise rapide des exportations à destination des pays limitrophes. Le processus de restauration économique a été initié dès les premières semaines de la Libération grâce aux prestations massives aux armées alliées et le « remboursement » inespéré d’une partie conséquente de celles-ci après-guerre. Dès le début de l’année 1947, la production industrielle belge rattrape le niveau d’avant-guerre alors que les productions charbonnière et agricole restent à la traîne. La politique alimentaire du second immédiat après-guerre place le consommateur au centre de l’économie agricole et multiple les contraintes du côté de l’offre en matière de transactions et de prix. Encombrée par l’héritage de l’occupation – en dépit d’un droit d’inventaire – elle rencontrera une forte opposition de la part du secteur alimentaire et principalement le monde agricole et le petit commerce. Ceux-ci déploieront des stratégies défensives à la fois politiques et illégales. Ces dernières s’expriment essentiellement depuis l’occupation par le détournement d’une part conséquente des maigres disponibilités alimentaires au profit de l’ennemi et d’une minorité au fort pouvoir d’achat. Quant au monde ouvrier organisé qui constitue aux yeux de la puissance publique le principal acteur du côté de la demande alimentaire, il va contester dès la Libération la politique d’austérité et l’inéquité des sacrifices demandés au nom de la restauration du pays. En dépit d’une pacification convenue entre les élites patronales et syndicales en échange de réformes sociales et la participation loyale des communistes au pouvoir, la seconde sortie de guerre sera marquée par de nombreuses grèves « sauvages » débordant le cadre syndical réformiste et communiste.

À vrai dire, la politique alimentaire mise en œuvre au cours de la seconde libération et du second immédiat après-guerre – ainsi que les réponses apportées par l’offre et la demande – ne peuvent être étudiées et comprises qu’en convoquant les crises alimentaires précédentes depuis la première occupation que la Belgique fut la seule à connaître en Europe occidentale sur la plus grand partie de son territoire, à l’exception du petit voisin grand-ducal. Tant la puissance publique, les élites dirigeantes que le monde agricole ou encore le mouvement ouvrier sauront tirer les enseignements des expériences passées. Enfin, la production agricole de la Belgique structurellement dépendante des importations massives de céréales et autres aliments du bétail s’inscrit depuis la fin du XIXème siècle dans une économie alimentaire mondialisée. Les crises alimentaires des temps de (sortie de guerre) traversées par la petite économie transformatrice et exportatrice sont avant tout des crises des approvisionnements extérieurs marquées par leur diminution voire leur quasi disparition. Au cours du second immédiat après-guerre, la politique alimentaire de la Belgique – comme celle des autres grands pays importateurs français, britannique ou néerlandais – sera toujours aussi tributaire des approvisionnements extérieurs régulés depuis la guerre par les Grands Alliés anglo-saxons. Ceux-ci passeront le relais en 1946 aux organismes internationaux gravitant autour des Nations Unies jusqu’aux abondantes récoltes mondiales de l’An 1948.
Doctorat en Histoire, art et archéologie
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33

Fincoeur, Michel. "Contribution à l'histoire de l'édition francophone belge sous l'Occupation allemande 1940-1944." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/210875.

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Abstract:

1. Introduction

Le 10 mai 1940 et pour la seconde fois en vingt ans, la Belgique est envahie par l’Allemagne. Contrairement à l’invasion de la Grande Guerre, il ne faut que dix-huit jours aux armées teutonnes pour écraser l’armée belge et occuper le territoire national tout entier. Peu avant la fin des hostilités, la vie culturelle reprend néanmoins timidement. Dès la fin mai 1940, les cinémas rouvrent leurs portes. La presse reparaît sous surveillance allemande. L’édition du livre, machine beaucoup plus lourde, ne reprend son activité qu’à la fin de l’été de 1940. Avec la signature des conventions bilatérales puis internationales sur la propriété intellectuelle dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, la Belgique a vu le secteur de l’édition du livre s’effondrer. Le public belge marque en outre une certaine désaffection envers les auteurs belges et plus particulièrement envers ceux qui se font éditer localement. N’est-ce pas le mémorialiste français Georges Suarez qui écrivait, en 1932, que « L’écrivain wallon trouve devant lui une route hérissée de difficultés ;son public est clairsemé, épars, capricieux […] ;les snobs locaux, acceptent les yeux fermés tout ce qui vient de Paris […] mais exercent un contrôle hautain sur leurs auteurs nationaux » (Georges Suarez, La Belgique vivante. Préface d’André Tardieu. [Louvain, Editions Rex, 1932], p.28-29). Toutes catégories confondues – presse quotidienne ou périodique, livres et brochures diverses –, la production éditoriale belge – domaines francophone, néerlandophone, germanophone et dialectal wallon confondus – connaît pourtant entre 1936 et 1939 une courbe ascendante ;puis, de 1941 à 1945, une inflexion avant de voir remonter lentement la production de 1946 à 1949. Le pic de l’année 1938 ne sera pas égalé dans les dix années qui suivent. En 1939, nous constatons une très infime baisse de l’offre de titres :1,1%. Les sommets atteints par l’éventail de titres proposés en 1938 et 1939 s’explique par la mobilisation des réservistes qui n’ont d’autres loisirs que la lecture. En 1940, le chaos qui suit la Campagne des Dix-Huit Jours contraint la plupart des éditeurs à l’inactivité. La reprise de certains secteurs de l’édition au début de l’été permet toutefois de maintenir une production de titres supérieure aux années 1935-1936. La production reprend de façon spectaculaire en 1941, dépassant le niveau de 1939 et se rapprochant de celui de 1938. Nous interprétons cette remontée du nombre de titres par l’effet de la fermeture des frontières et donc par la nécessité de présenter de nouveaux titres au public belge avide de lecture. De 1942 à 1944, la chute spectaculaire s’explique sans doute par la disparition d’une grande partie de la presse périodique et par le caractère de plus en plus contraignant de la censure allemande. Celle-ci réduit le nombre de titres publiés à cause de la raréfaction croissante du papier disponible. Remarquons que la raréfaction des titres disponibles sur le marché n’implique pas obligatoirement une diminution quantitative des tirages. A partir du mois de septembre 1944 et en 1945, un certain nombre d’éditeurs sont placés sous les projecteurs de la Justice militaire et interrompent ou cessent leurs activités. Par ailleurs, une série de petits éditeurs occasionnels qui publiaient n’importe quoi sous n’importe quelle forme disparaissent du champ éditorial. De plus, la pénurie de papier, les ruptures de fourniture d’électricité industrielle qui fait tourner les rotatives et la réouverture des frontières aux importations françaises, puis néerlandaise dans la seconde moitié de l’année 1945, incitent les éditeurs belges à la frilosité. Enfin, en 1946, la reprise peut s’expliquer par la stabilisation économique.

2. L’épuration des bibliothèques et des librairies

Même si la liberté de presse est garantie par la Constitution, la loi belge organise les délits de presse. Les circonstances exceptionnelles de la déclaration de guerre de la France et de l’Angleterre à l’Allemagne à la suite de l’invasion de la Pologne provoquent la création d’un éphémère Ministère de l’Information nationale (1939-1940), puis d’un Service d’Information du Premier Ministre (1940). Une censure larvée, justifiée par la sécurité du territoire et le respect de la neutralité de la Belgique, est d’ailleurs exercée dès le mois de septembre 1939 afin d’éviter tout prétexte d’intervention de la part des belligérants. Durant les premiers mois de l’Occupation, une épuration anarchique s’exerce à l’encontre des bibliothèques privées et des librairies. Ce sont tantôt des soldats qui brûlent des livres trouvés sur les rayonnages de leur logement réquisitionné, tantôt des officiers qui prennent la mouche en découvrant chez le libraire de leur nouveau lieu de résidence un opuscule de l’espèce J’ai descendu mon premier Boche. Dès le 13 août 1940, la Militärverwaltung ordonne l’épuration systématique des bibliothèques publiques et des librairies. Tout livre ou brochure anti-allemand ou anti-nazi doit être immédiatement mis sous clef et bientôt déposé entre les mains des services allemands. Le soin de déterminer ce qui tombe ou non dans cette catégorie particulièrement vague est laissé à la seule appréciation des bibliothécaires et des libraires. Ceux-ci doivent attendre le mois de septembre 1941 pour que la Propaganda Abteilung daigne publier une liste de 1800 titres interdits. Des compléments sont ensuite régulièrement insérés dans le Journal de la Librairie de la Gilde du Livre et dans les Mededeelingen van het Boekengilde. Le Ministère de l’Instruction publique charge de surcroît des enseignants et des inspecteurs d’épurer les manuels scolaires de tout propos anti-allemands. Cette mesure a pour but d’éviter que l’occupant ne s’en charge lui-même et n’impose le manuel unique à l’instar de ce qui se passe Outre-Rhin. Le 8 octobre 1940, sans en avoir soumis le texte aux autorités allemandes, le Ministère de l’Instruction publique crée donc une Commission chargée de la révision des ouvrages classiques pour l’enseignement normal, moyen, primaire et gardien, plus communément désignée sous le nom de Commission pour la Révision des Ouvrages Classiques. Composée de collaborationnistes notoires mais également d’authentiques résistants, la Commission examinera près de 5000 titres entre la fin octobre 1940 et la fin mai 1944 ;elle interdira l’usage de 564 manuels et en fera modifier 182 autres.

3. La censure des livres

Au début de l’été, les Allemands chargent l’Union des Industries Graphiques & du Livre (UNIGRA), le syndicat des imprimeurs belges, d’exercer une censure préalable générale et d’empêcher ainsi la publication de tout propos anti-allemand. Cette censure est ensuite circonscrite, à partir du 20 août 1940, à la littérature qui traite de sujets militaires et politiques (en ce compris les questions concernant la race, le judaïsme et la Franc-maçonnerie). Le 24 septembre 1940, la Propaganda Abteilung prend le relais de l’organisme belge. Le Referat Schrifttum est dirigé par le Sonderführer Pr Dr Hans Teske et par son adjoint le Sonderführer Leutenant Bruno Orlick. Durant son premier exercice, ce bureau de la littérature refuse 100 manuscrits sur les 600 qu’il examine. A partir du 15 janvier 1943, invoquant le manque de papier, le Referat Schrifttum impose aux éditeurs de soumettre tous leurs manuscrits. Chaque demande est établie en triple exemplaire. Le premier est conservé dans les dossiers de la Propaganda Abteilung, les deux autres exemplaires sont transmis à l’Office Central du Papier - Papier Centrale (OCP-PC). Celui-ci y appose un numéro correspondant à un bon de consommation de papier. L’un est conservé dans les archives de l’OCP et l’autre est retourné à l’éditeur qui doit le présenter à l’imprimeur. Sans ce bon de consommation, l’imprimeur ne peut entreprendre le travail puisqu’il doit justifier les quantités utilisées dans ses ateliers. Tout le processus de contrôle apparaît dans les livres sous la forme de numéros précédés des mentions « Autorisation PA n° » / « Toelating PA nr » / « Zulassung Nr… » et « OCP n° » / « PC nr ». Parfois encore, le numéro d’affiliation de l’imprimeur auprès de l’OCP figure dans le colophon du volume. Chaque numéro est lié à un titre et à l’éditeur qui le demande. En cas d’annulation du projet par l’éditeur, le numéro est alors perdu. Du côté de la SS, l’Abteilung III C 4 de la Sicherheitsdienst se charge notamment de la surveillance des Editions autorisées. Contrairement à la Propaganda Abteilung qui intervient le plus souvent en amont, la SD intervient essentiellement en aval. Celle-ci saisit les ouvrages « séditieux » qui auraient pu échapper à la sagacité des censeurs de la Propaganda Abteilung, ou à l’autocensure des éditeurs belges.

4. La pénurie de papier

Avant la guerre, la Belgique importait la quasi-totalité des matières premières destinées à la fabrication du papier et du carton. Mais le déclenchement des hostilités a rendu l’approvisionnement difficile et réduit en conséquence la fabrication du papier. La pénurie des matières premières provoque une réaction rapide de l’administration militaire allemande. Dès le 17 juin 1940, elle exige un état des lieux de la production, des stocks et de la consommation qui permette la rationalisation de l’économie. Parallèlement à ces mesures et en complément à celles-ci, le Ministère des Affaires économiques crée en février 1941 un Office Central du Papier pour veiller à la production et à l’utilisation rationnelle du papier et du carton. Près de la moitié de la cellulose est alors consacrée à la fabrication de produits ersatz comme le carton-cuir pour les chaussures ou le « Balatum » et l’« Unalit ». En mai 1941, l’OCP interdit la fabrication de produits de luxe tels les confettis, les sous-bocks et le papier-dentelle pour tarte. Les besoins en papier et carton augmentent cependant :pour les emballages en replacement d’autres matières devenues rares, pour le papier d’occultation, ou encore pour la paperasserie administrative occasionnée par la rationalisation de l’économie. En avril 1942, le Referat Papier, sous prétexte de rationalisation, ordonne la fermeture de près de la moitié des papeteries. Mais celles qui restent en activité souffrent de la pénurie de matières premières et de combustible qui entraîne une baisse de la production. En octobre 1942, prétextant cette fois la pénurie de papier, le Referat Schrifttum interdit la publication de livres à plus de 5.000 exemplaires mais autorise des dépassements aux éditeurs suffisamment bien en cour. La consommation de papier est alors contrôlée par l’OCP. En avril 1943, le spectre de la pénurie permet encore le recensement des stocks de papier chez les imprimeurs. Or personne n’est la dupe de ces dernières mesures qui relèvent plus de la censure que de l’économie.

5. La restructuration économique et professionnelle

Dès le début de l’été 1940, la Militärverwaltung commence de saisir les biens ennemis, c’est-à-dire français et britanniques. Grâce à la mise sous séquestre des avoirs du Groupe Hachette, l’actionnaire français de l’Agence Dechenne, le principal distributeur de presse en Belgique est administré par un Allemand, représentant des intérêts du groupe éditorial allemand Amann. Celui-ci obtient le monopole de l’importation de quotidiens étrangers et de la distribution des journaux belges. Il réussit également à devenir le principal grossiste en livres, imposant aux éditeurs le choix de certains titres, le tirage et parfois la couverture des livres. En novembre 1940, tous les éditeurs de livres et de périodiques ainsi que les libraires doivent s’inscrire au Cercle belge de la Librairie ou à son homologue flamand. En juin 1942, le Ministère des Affaires Economiques institue la Gilde du Livre / Boekengilde qui détient, par le biais de ses deux chambres linguistiques, le monopole de la représentation professionnelle. En 1941, l’Occupant suscite la formation d’un organisme de collaboration, la Communauté culturelle wallonne (CCW) qui devrait investir le champ culturel, à l’instar de la Deutsch-Vlämische Arbeitsgemeinschaft (DeVlag). Dirigée par l’écrivain prolétarien Pierre Hubermont, la CCW tente de regrouper les auteurs au sein d’une Chambre des Lettres françaises et d’une Chambre des Lettres dialectales. Très peu d’intellectuels se rallieront à cet organisme rapidement démonétisé. A la suite du congrès européen des écrivains tenu à Weimar en octobre 1941, une Europäische Schriftsteller Vereinigung est par ailleurs fondée le 27 mars 1942. Cette Société Européenne des Ecrivains (SEE), destinée à remplacer le PEN-Club international, encourage les traductions et la diffusion des ouvrages de ses membres. Pierre Hubermont est désigné pour tenir le rôle de porte-parole de la Section wallonne et belge de langue française (SWBLF) qui commence d’être organisée dans le courant du mois de mars 1942. Seule une poignée d’écrivains répondront aux sirènes de Weimar. En 1943 la Communauté Culturelle Wallonne fonde une nouvelle structure plus discrète, et surtout, moins discréditée :la Fédération des Artistes wallons et belges d’expression française (FAWBEF) dont l’intitulé est très proche de celui de la section locale de la SEE. Il ne s’agit pas d’un repli stratégique de la part de Pierre Hubermont – qui est cependant contraint de constater le semi échec de la CCW – mais d’une tentative d’officialisation de la structure corporative ébauchée par la CCW sous l’œil attentif du Ministère de l’Instruction publique. La FAWBEF ébauche la création d’une Chambre de Littérature subdivisée en Chambre des Ecrivains d’expression française, en Chambre des Ecrivains d’expression wallonne, en Chambre des Traducteurs et en Chambre des Editeurs. Le but est d’aboutir à une adhésion obligatoire et ainsi à un contrôle de l’accès à la profession. Depuis l’instauration de la législation et la signature des conventions internationales sur la protection des droits d’auteur dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, les redevances sont essentiellement perçues en Belgique par des sociétés de droit français. Face à cette situation de perceptions multiples, l’administration militaire allemande impose une perception unique par une société de droit belge. Dans un premier temps, la Militärverwaltung place sous séquestre les sociétés françaises qui disposent du monopole de fait de la perception des droits d’auteur en Belgique francophone. Dans un second temps, au début du mois de janvier 1941, la Nationale Vereeniging voor Auteursrecht (NAVEA) est réquisitionnée et désignée pour détenir le monopole de la perception des droits. Toujours en janvier 1941, une tentative de rallier l’Association des Artistes professionnels de Belgique (AAPB) à la société unique afin d’en faire sa section francophone échoue grâce à la résistance de ses dirigeants. L’AAPB est alors dissoute par les Allemands. Le monopole de la NAVEA pose de nombreux problèmes juridiques. Pour toucher les droits de suite, les artistes et leurs ayants droit doivent devenir membre de la NAVEA, alors que les sociétés françaises interdisent la double appartenance sous peine de perdre les droits à la pension. Après d’âpres pourparlers, la NAVEA s’engage à payer les pensions pour les artistes qui la rejoindraient rapidement. La NAVEA ne collabore pourtant pas avec l’occupant puisque, clandestinement, celle-ci noue un accord avec la société anglaise The Performing Right Society, via Lausanne et Lisbonne, et répartit en secret les droits des auteurs anglais et américains. Elle tente de surcroît de protéger ses affiliés juifs en refusant de livrer la liste des ses adhérents.

6. La production

Malgré les contraintes liées à la pénurie de papier et celles qu’impose la censure, les éditeurs belges profitent des circonstances pour éditer à tour de bras tout et n’importe quoi, puisant essentiellement dans le vivier des littérateurs locaux. En effet, les Belges s’adonnent au loisir peu onéreux de la lecture. La fermeture des frontières bloque les importations de livres français et néerlandais. D’une part, la culture flamande est revalorisée alors que toute velléité pan-néerlandaise est combattue. D’autre part, la littérature française est contingentée :les Lettres françaises sont systématiquement dénigrées car on les juge délétères. Enfin, la germanisation rampante va bon train grâce à la promotion des Lettres scandinaves et allemandes :il s’agit de remodeler les structures mentales des lecteurs grâce aux traductions. Les tirages sont énormes pour des valeurs sûres comme le Leeuw van Vlaanderen (200 000 exemplaires) d’Hendrik Conscience et De Vlaschaard (100 000 exemplaires) de Stijn Streuvels. La plupart des maisons d’édition développent ou inaugurent des collections de lettres étrangères. A la suite de pressions du Referat Schrifttum, rares sont les grands éditeurs qui ne publient pas de traductions de l’allemand. Aux quelques éditeurs rétifs, le chef du Referat Schrifttum suggère de remplacer les textes allemands par des traductions d’auteurs scandinaves et finno-estoniens. C’est ainsi qu’une maison anti-allemande éditera des romans du prix Nobel norvégien Knut Hamsun pourtant rallié à la collaboration la plus dure. Mais les éditeurs ne peuvent pas publier toutes les traductions :les auteurs slaves du nord (Russes et Polonais), anglo-saxons contemporains et juifs sont considérés comme indésirables et interdits. Le Referat Schrifttum autorise la publication de romans anglo-saxons qui ne sont pas encore tombés dans le domaine public. Ces autorisations exceptionnelles ont trait à des textes qui dénigrent systématiquement le modèle social britannique et américain. Curieusement sont ainsi traduits des romans remettant en cause un ordre social ou moral comme Babbitt (1943) de Sinclair Lewis, The Grapes of Wrath (De Druiven der gramschap, 1943 et Grappes d’amertume, 1944) de John Steinbeck, The Picture of Dorian Gray (Le Portrait de Dorian Gray, 1944) d’Oscar Wilde ou encore The Rains came (La Mousson, 1944) de Louis Bromfield. La réédition de The Scarlet Pimpernel (Le Mouron Rouge, 1943) de la baronne Emmuska Orczy dénonce le fanatisme de la Révolution Française et stigmatise l’hédonisme de la Gentry anglaise. A titre d’exemple, les Editions de La Toison d’Or, financées par les Allemands, publient 26 % de traductions, les Editions Les Ecrits sortent 31,75 % de traductions. A l’Uitgeverij De Lage Landen qui publie en langues néerlandaise, allemande et française, les traductions constituent 44 % du catalogue néerlandais.

7. Les éditeurs

La demande permet à une nouvelle génération d’éditeur de se manifester. Certaines maisons d’édition sont créées avec l’appui de l’un ou l’autre service allemand. D’autres, qui ne s’inscrivent pourtant pas dans une politique de collaboration, sont fondées sous le regard attentif de la Propaganda Abteilung. Des maisons jugées hostiles au national-socialisme sont mises sous séquestre. Enfin, des administrateurs provisoires et des directeurs littéraires inféodés au nouveau pouvoir sont nommés. Comme le reste de la population, les acteurs du champ éditorial adoptent un éventail de positions qui va de la Résistance à la Collaboration avec, pour le plus grand nombre, une accommodation à des degrés divers. Si certains choisissent de résister et freinent la politique allemande du livre dans la mesure de leurs moyens, aucun toutefois n’entre dans la clandestinité. A partir du 15 janvier 1943, tous les manuscrits doivent toutefois passer entre les mains de l’administration allemande ;ce sera souvent la seule compromission des éditeurs. La grande majorité des maisons reste patriote, à l’instar des Editions Casterman, des Editions Dupuis ou des Editions Charles Dessart. Un réseau éditorial d’Ordre nouveau est en revanche composé par Léon Degrelle et des rexistes. Le 25 août 1940, la s.a. La Presse de Rex obtient de pouvoir sortir à nouveau son quotidien de combat, Le Pays Réel (1936). La ligne éditoriale outrancière du journal ne parvient pas à fidéliser son lectorat (moins de 10 000 exemplaires vendus en 1942) et Degrelle renfloue les caisses de la rédaction grâce aux bénéfices du Palais des Parfums, une entreprise juive spoliée, et à des subventions de la SS. En 1943, Degrelle finance un nouveau quotidien, L’Avenir, inspiré de Paris Soir. Le groupe de presse de Degrelle publie également des hebdomadaires :une version collaborationniste du Pourquoi Pas ?intitulée pour l’occasion Voilà ;Tout, copié sur les géants Match, Tempo et Signal ;Indiscrétions, un magazine de mode qui prend rapidement le titre Elle et Lui ;et une revue pour jeunes gens, Mon Copain « volé ». La Presse de Rex possède encore trois maisons d’édition :les Editions Rex (1929), les Editions Ignis (1939), l’Uitgeverij Ignis (1941) et les Editions de L’Archer (1944). La s.a. Editoria, dirigée par le critique d’art Paul Colin, fait également partie du même réseau. Editoria regroupe la Nouvelle Société d’Edition (1934), l’hebdomadaire Cassandre (1934) et Le Nouveau Journal (1940). Des journalistes rexistes participent à la création de maisons littéraires :Claude Chabry fonde, en 1943, les éditions du même nom, les Editions du Rond-Point (1943) puis les Editions de La Mappemonde (1943) ;Victor Meulenijzer s’associe au caricaturiste de Cassandre René Marinus pour monter Les Editions du Dragon (1944) ;Eugène Maréchal relance en 1941 les Editions Maréchal (1938) et participe à la création des Editions du Carrefour (1943). Julien Bernaerts, le fondateur des Editions de la Phalange (1934) et de l’Uitgeverij De Phalanx (1938), se rallie à l’Ordre nouveau. Il est bientôt remarqué par le SS-Hauptsturmführer Hans Schneider qui travaille pour l’Ahnenerbe, le cercle académique de la SS. En 1943, Schneider persuade Bernaerts de créer l’Uitgeverij De Burcht. Dans le même cadre, Franz Briel, Léon Van Huffel et René Baert mettent sur pied les Editions de La Roue Solaire (1943). Proche de la SS, le directeur de l’Uitgeverij Steenlandt (DeVlag), Jan Acke, est abattu par la résistance. Il n’est pas le seul puisque Paul Colin est bientôt exécuté par un étudiant de l’Université libre de Bruxelles, Arnaud Fraiteur. Toujours dans l’orbite de la collaboration, les deux grands trusts de presse allemands Mundus et Amann essayent de pénétrer le marché belge. Tandis que le groupe germano-slovaque Mundus finance la création des Editions de La Toison d’Or (1941), fondées par Edouard Didier, Guido Eeckels et Raymond De Becker, Amann tente de s’emparer de l’Uitgeverij De Lage Landen (1941) de Guido Eeckels, puis Mundus devient un temps actionnaire de l’entreprise qui publie alors des ouvrages pour le compte du Deutsche Institut. Rappelons que, par l’entremise d’administrateurs provisoires, Amann pèse sur l’édition grâce à l’Agence Dechenne et signalons que Mundus a fait tomber le quotidien mosan La Légia (1940) dans son escarcelle. Les Editions de Belgique de Maximilien Mention, qui porte pourtant l’uniforme noir des cadres rexistes, ne semblent pas exprimer les idées nouvelles. Les journalistes rexistes Jules Stéphane et son épouse Marguerite Inghels dirigent la coopérative Les Auteurs Associés (1942) et Het Boek (1943) qui ne sont pas non plus d’obédience nazie. A la marge de ce réseau, mais très impliquées dans le réseau national-catholique, figurent les Editions L’Essor (1939) de Léon Renard. Comme toutes les coopératives ouvrières, les Editions Labor d’Alexandre André sont placées sous séquestre. André est maintenu à la direction commerciale de la maison tandis que le chef de la CCW est propulsé par l’occupant à la direction littéraire.

8. La Libération

A la Libération, l’Etat Belge instaure à nouveau un régime de censure larvée dans le but d’empêcher la diffusion des idées ennemies :des auteurs réputés inciviques sont interdits de publication dans la presse, des livres sont saisis et des maisons d’édition sont placées sous séquestre et leurs livres mis à l’index. Quelques éditeurs de la nouvelle génération quittent Bruxelles pour Paris en prétextant la mauvaise conjoncture économique mais en réalité ils fuient un climat qu’ils jugent répressif. Plusieurs retrouvent une place importante dans les champs éditorial et littéraire parisiens où leur passé est ignoré. Notons que la Justice militaire belge a rarement poursuivi un éditeur pour ses activités, comme si les éditeurs n’étaient pas responsables des idées qu’ils ont mises sur le marché. Le refus de livrer la liste de ses adhérents juifs et les accords clandestins avec The Performing Right Society permettent à la NAVEA de survivre après la Libération sous une nouvelle appellation :la Société des Auteurs Belges-Belgische Auteursmaatschappij (SABAM). L’Etat de droit rétabli, les sociétés françaises reprennent leurs activités en Belgique, restaurant ainsi le système de la perception multiple. L’Association des Artistes professionnels de Belgique constitue un jury d’honneur pour sanctionner ses membres qui auraient fauté. L’Association des Ecrivains belges exclut de ses rangs les auteurs compromis. Les Académies expulsent des immortels et en blâment d’autres, les écartant provisoirement de leur honorable société. Des écrivains, peu ou prou impliqués dans la collaboration, suivent le chemin des éditeurs et posent leurs valises sur les bords de la Seine. Les uns deviennent conseillers littéraires de grandes maisons parisiennes, d’autres, comme Paul Kenny, deviennent millionnaires en publiant des romans d’espionnage. Plusieurs exilés ci-devant anti-bolchevistes se lancent dans la traduction de romans anglais et américains. D’aucuns inventent la solderie de livres neufs à prix réduit s’ils ne revêtent pas l’habit vert. La réouverture des frontières aux livres d’écrivains français, néerlandais et anglo-saxons repousse la plupart des littérateurs belges dans l’ombre dont ils étaient sortis à l’occasion de circonstances exceptionnelles. On pourrait croire que l’âge d’or de l’édition est terminé. Or la crise du papier va entraîner l’émergence d’une nouvelle littérature et la création de nouvelles sociétés d’édition :les imprimeurs sont tenus de prendre deux qualités de papier, l’une bonne et l’autre médiocre. Celle-ci est alors utilisée pour des publications à destination de la jeunesse. Naissent ainsi une quinzaine d’hebdomadaires parmi lesquels figurent Franc-Jeu (1944), Lutin (1944), Perce-Neige (1944), Story (1945), Wrill (1945), Cap’taine Sabord (1946), Jeep (1945), Annette (1945) et Tintin (1946). Les deux derniers deviendront de véritables « blanchisseries » pour les réprouvés de l’Epuration… La bande dessinée belge et ses deux écoles, Marcinelle et Bruxelles, ainsi que les sociétés qui éditent leurs albums vont bientôt dominer le marché francophone.


Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature
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Freche, Bibiane. "Entre rupture et continuité: le champ littéraire belge après la seconde guerre mondiale (3 septembre 1944-8 octobre 1960)." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/210874.

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Le champ littéraire belge francophone du second après-guerre n'a jamais fait l'objet d'une étude approfondie et exhaustive. Après avoir rappelé les conditions littéraires et culturelles de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, nous étudions l'épuration du champ littéraire, à savoir la réorganisation de celui-ci, par des instances qui lui sont extérieures. Nous analysons ensuite les rapports entre les écrivains et les institutions publiques et littéraires, avant de nous atteler à la description du champ littéraire de l'après-guerre. Nous tentons d'y décrire la position et les prises de positions des différents agents en présence. Se déploie alors en filigrane l'image d'une institution littéraire faible, incapable de faire émerger un nombre conséquent des auteurs de l'époque.
Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature
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Haas, Benjamin D. "Singing Songs of Social Significance: Children's Music and Leftist Pedagogy in 1930s America." Thesis, connect to online resource, 2008. http://digital.library.unt.edu/permalink/meta-dc-9777.

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Mareuge, Agathe. "L'œuvre poétique tardive de Jean Hans Arp (1886-1966)." Thesis, Paris 4, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA040229.

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L’étude de l’oeuvre poétique tardive de l’artiste Jean Hans Arp (1886-1966) révèle que l’opposition entre non-sens et sens, au moyen de laquelle est souvent analysé le passage de sa production dada à sa poésie des années cinquante et soixante, n’a pas lieu d’être. L’introduction d’une cohérence aux plans formel et structurel permet au plan sémantique le maintien de la plurivocité et de la contradiction. L’analyse des formes poétiques arpiennes montre l’existence d’une invention et d’une variété formelles intactes dans la production tardives, entre actualisation de formes anciennes et innovation. Cette tension anime également son activité anthologique et éditoriale, comprise comme élément constituant de sa poétique tardive : le poète déploie des stratégies visant à constituer, entre soixante et quatre-vingts ans, une oeuvre réflexive, intégrant les cinquante années de production antérieure, mais en déjouant constamment les écueils de l’(auto-)monumentalité. Le rapport entretenu avec la réalité extérieure au langage connaît un bouleversement référentiel après 1943-1945. La critique accrue de la rationalité occidentale et l’exigence d’expression subjective conduisent à la mise en place d’un discours poétique sur le monde et sur les capacités du langage, une « cosmogonie de poche » à la fois humble et démiurgique. Elle consiste en une confiance inaltérée dans le pouvoir créateur du langage poétique, capable de créer d’autres mondes. Cette modernité radicale d’Arp, exacerbée car revendiquée, le situe de façon originale dans le contexte du devenir des avant-gardes européennes après 1945 et met en lumière la spécificité de son appartenance à une génération de transition
A close study of Jean Hans Arp’s late poetry exposes the inadequacy of the traditional opposition between non-sense and sense, which is frequently used to analyse the transition from his Dada production to the poetic works of the 1950s and the 1960s. By introducing a formal and structural coherence, the poet manages to preserve plurivocity and contradiction on a semantic level. Considering the specificities of Arp’s late poetic forms, the study shows that invention and variety are as vivid then as they were during Dada Zurich, based on both innovation and actualisation of former techniques. This tension is inherent to his anthological and editorial activity as well, which is considered here as a key element of his late poetics. In his sixties and up until his eighties, the poet develops strategies aimed at constituting a reflexive work which integrates the earlier production while always avoiding the trap of (self-) monumentalisation. After 1943-1945, the relationship between Arp's poetry and reality outside the language undergoes a profound referential change. His increasing criticism of western rationalism and need for subjective expression, without returning to neo-romanticism, form the basis for a poetic discourse on the world and the possibilities of language, a “pocket cosmogony” that is both humble and demiurgic”. The latter hinges on an unwavering faith in the creative power of the poetic word and its ability to generate other worlds. This radical modernity, consciously asserted, locates Arp’s late work as an original experiment in the context of the avant-gardes post-1945, highlighting his specific itinerary within a transitional generation
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Majerus, Benoît. "Occupations et logiques policières: la police communale de Bruxelles pendant les première et deuxième guerres mondiales, 1914-1918 et 1940-1944." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/211112.

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En tant que pays occupé pendant les deux conflits mondiaux, la Belgique s’avère être un laboratoire pour étudier le phénomène des occupations pendant le XXe siècle. Pour la bureaucratie étatique, ces occupations posent la question de leur positionnement face à une dissociation entre Etat et Nation. La comparaison diachronique de la police communale de Bruxelles – à travers l’angle organisationnel et à travers sa pratique dans l’espace social – a permis de dégager plusieurs thèses.

Le développement des appareils administratifs a pris de telles dimensions dans le XIXe siècle que l’occupant est obligé de trouver un modus vivendi avec les institutions existant sur les territoires occupés, lui-même étant incapable de gérer seul les pays sous son contrôle. Cette constellation donne une marge de manœuvres importante à la police locale, l’institution qui fait l’objet de notre étude.

Pendant les deux guerres, la police est soumise à un processus de réformes visant à améliorer son fonctionnement :centralisation du commandement, spécialisation d’unités, élargissement géographie des compétences d’intervention… Ces changements s’inspirent d’une part d’idées ambiantes en Belgique et d’autre part de projets réalisés en Allemagne dans les deux périodes procédant la guerre.

L’intégration de l’appareil policier communal à l’intérieur d’un régime d’occupation est facilitée par le professionnalisme de celui-ci qui contraste fortement avec la pratique des polices auxiliaires pour lesquelles l’ordre patriotique et/ou idéologique peut prendre le dessus sur le ‘maintien d’ordre classique’. Cette prédominance professionnalisante explique la continuité du fonctionnement de l’institution qui poursuit ses tâches entre 1914-1918 et 1940-1944.

En m’inspirant des travaux de l’historien allemand Alf Lüdtke et du sociologues français Dominique Montjardet, j’ai essayé de questionner trois postulats sous-jacents dans l’historiographie :

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Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation histoire
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Korf, Lindie. "D.F. Malan : a political biography." Thesis, Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/3991.

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Thesis (DPhil (History))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLSIH ABSTRACT: This study is a political biography of D.F. Malan (1874–1959), the first of the apartheid-era Prime Ministers, and covers the years 1874 to 1954, when Malan retired from politics. It endeavours to provide a warts-and-all account of D.F. Malan which challenges prevalent myths and stereotypes surrounding his public persona and his political orientation. While the overwhelming focus is on Malan’s political career, special attention is paid to his personal life in order to paint a multi-faceted picture of his character. The biography is written in the form of a seamless narrative and employs a literary style of writing. It is based on archival research which utilised Malan’s private collection, as well as the private collections of his Nationalist contemporaries. Malan takes the centre stage at all times, as the biography focuses on his perceptions and experiences. Malan’s views regarding Afrikaner nationalism, which was his foremost political priority, are described, and are related to his views of British imperialism as well as other ideologies such as communism and totalitarianism. This study demonstrates that there is a notable link between Malan’s perceptions of race relations and his concerns about the poor white problem. It reveals that Malan’s racial policy was, to some extent, fluid, as were his views on South Africa’s constitutional position. Debates about South Africa’s links to Britain and the nature of the envisioned republic preoccupied Afrikaner nationalists throughout the first half of the twentieth century – and served as an outlet for regional and generational tensions within the movement. Malan’s clashes with nationalists such as Tielman Roos, J.B.M. Hertzog and J.G. Strijdom are highlighted as an indication of the internecine power struggles within the National Party (NP). By emphasising these complexities, this study seeks to contribute to a nuanced understanding of the South African past.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie is politieke biografie van D.F. Malan (1874–1959), die eerste van die apartheid-era Eerste Ministers, en dek die jare 1874 tot 1954, toe Malan uit die politiek getree het. Dit poog om onversuikerde beeld van Malan te skets wat heersende mites en stereotipes aangaande sy openbare beeld en sy benadering tot die politiek uitdaag. Die fokus is hoofsaaklik op Malan se politieke loopbaan, maar besondere aandag word aan sy private lewe geskenk om sodoende veelsydige portret van sy karakter te skilder. Die biografie is in die vorm van naatlose narratief geskryf en maak van literêre skryfstyl gebruik. Dit is gebaseer op argivale navorsing, waartydens daar van D.F. Malan se privaat versameling gebruik gemaak is, sowel as die privaat versamelings van sy tydgenote. Malan is ten alle tye die sentrale figuur en die biografie fokus op sy persepsies en ervarings. Malan se denke oor Afrikaner nasionalisme, wat sy vernaamste prioriteit was, word beskryf en in verband gebring met sy opinie van Britse imperialisme, sowel as ander ideologieë soos kommunisme en totalitarisme. Die studie wys op die verband tussen Malan se denke oor rasseverhoudinge en sy besorgdheid oor die armblanke vraagstuk. Dit dui daarop dat Malan se rassebeleid tot sekere mate vloeibaar was. Dit was ook die geval met sy benadering tot Suid-Afrika se konstitusionele posisie. Afrikaner nasionaliste het tydens die eerste helfte van die twintigste eeu baie aandag geskenk aan debatte oor Suid-Afrika se verhouding tot Brittanje en die aard van die voorgenome republiek. Dit was tot mate weerligafleier vir reeds bestaande spanning tussen die onderskeie streke en generasies. Malan se botsings met nasionaliste soos Tielman Roos, J.B.M. Hertzog en J.G. Strijdom word belig as aanduiding van die diepgewortelde magstryd binne die Nasionale Party (NP). Deur op hierdie kompleksiteite klem te lê, poog die studie om bydrae te lewer tot meer genuanseerde begrip van die Suid-Afrikaanse verlede.
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Askew, Joseph Benjamin. "The status of Tibet in the diplomacy of China, Britain, the United States and India, 1911-1959 / Joseph Askew." Thesis, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/2440/21830.

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"June 2002"
Bibliography: leaves 229-270.
ix, 270 leaves ; 30 cm.
This thesis examines the changes in diplomacy of China, the West, Tibet and India from 1911 to 1951, while Tibet functioned as an independent country, and during 1951 to 1959 while under Chinese control. Tibet maintained its own currency, government, armed forces and way of life until 1959. The thesis also examines the cultural shifts in the political, social and military spheres in these countries. It assumes that the general world trend in political life has been towards increasingly intolerant and extreme politics. If Tibet remains part of China with little chance of resuming independence, it is because the Chinese government and people were quicker to adopt radical Western philosophies than the Tibetans were.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of History, 2002
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POTÌ, Giorgio. "Imperial violence, anti-colonial nationalism and international society : the politics of revolt across Mediterranean empires, 1919–1927." Doctoral thesis, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/43865.

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Defence date: 4 November 2016
Examining Board: Professor Federico Romero, European University Institute (Supervisor) ; Professor Corinna Unger, European University Institute ; Professor Davide Rodogno, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva ; Professor Andrew Arsan, University of Cambridge
This thesis explores the reconfiguration of colonial empires in the interwar years through four cases of anti-colonial nationalist insurrection and imperial repression from the British, French and Spanish Middle East: the Egyptian Revolution of 1919, the Iraqi revolt of the following year, the Rif War in Morocco (1921–26), and the Great Syrian Revolt (1925). Scholars have alternatively portrayed the years between the World Wars—and especially the 1920s—as the era of nationalism, the apogee of European imperialism and the age of internationalism. This thesis investigates four short circuits among the three forces, by comparing the selected cases along two main lines. First of all, my preoccupation has been to trace their international resonance throughout the public debate of the metropolitan powers and the League of Nations bodies. Furthermore, I have attempted to assess whether and how, in each case, this international resonance shaped the policy of the imperial powers. Recently, Erez Manela and Robert Gerwath have portrayed the ‘long’ Great War as the inauguration of a process of imperial decline eventually leading to decolonization. The general picture of Middle Eastern events resulting from my case-studies is rather that of a ‘war of adjustment’ of the Euro-Mediterranean imperial complex lasting from the opening of the Paris Conference up to the ‘pacification’ of the Moroccan and Syrian theaters. Anxious about the preservation of their imperial status and pressed by war-exhausted and public-spending-intolerant national opinions, the European powers employed unrestrained military force to annihilate rebellions as quickly and definitively as possible. Metropolitan authorities accepted negotiations with indigenous elites only when facing the reoccurrence of insurgency—like in Egypt, out of a recalculation of costs and benefits—like in Iraq, or under international pressure—like in Syria. Conversely, although insurgent violence reached impressive peaks of brutality, especially in Morocco, Middle Eastern nationalist ‘agitators’ conceived of armed insurrection in a fully Clausewitzan way, that is, as part of a broader political strategy. Their infatuation with internationalist ideologies or the faith in ‘third’ international institutions never mislead anti-colonial elites up to the point of believing that they could get rid of European control on a complete and permanent basis. Instead, Sa‘ad Zaghloul and his neighbor ‘homologous’ exploited insurgency in combination with international claim-making and appeals to metropolitan public opinions as part a comprehensive effort to force imperial governments to negotiations and reshape colonial rule on more collaborative and progressive bases. In sum, alongside and in strict interaction with petitioning, ‘revolting’ became a way of life of post-1919 colonial subjects.
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KONCZAL, Kornelia. "Politics of plunder : post-German property and the reconstruction of East Central Europe after the Second World War." Doctoral thesis, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/47104.

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Defence date: 23 June 2017
Examining Board: Professor Pavel Kolář, European University Institute (Supervisor); Professor Pieter M. Judson, European University Institute; Doctor Christiane Brenner, Collegium Carolinum, Munich; Professor Piotr Madajczyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw
Around the end of the Second World War two processes dramatically changed the socioeconomic landscape of East Central Europe: the expulsion of up to twelve million Germans and the establishment of a new social order inspired by the Soviet model. This project is an inquiry into the interconnectedness between these apparently distinct histories. My aim is to understand how the redistribution of property formerly owned by Germans shaped the postwar reconstruction of the social order in two countries whose territories were comprised of up to one third of the post-German lands: Poland and Czechoslovakia. The specific focus of this study lies in the illegal takeover of property left behind by Germans, attempts to control it and the associated discourse. Studying the destructive and productive effects of plunder offers me the opportunity to reveal how public security, economic stability and redistributive justice were negotiated at various intersecting levels. I show that the illegal property transfers were both an obstacle to the post-war reconstruction as well as an opportunity used by individuals and institutions to accelerate it. In more general terms, this reading highlights the critical role of the legally-opaque property arrangements to be found in any modern socio-economic order.
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Hedeen, Katherine Marie. "Cuba : poesía, género y revolución." 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2152/12060.

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Craft, Hugh. "Between the idea and the reality : Commonwealth diplomacy in a changing global order." Phd thesis, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/150466.

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Deibert, Ronald James. "Hypermedia: modes of communication in world order transformation." Thesis, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/7279.

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Despite that we are in the midst of profound changes in communications technologies, there is a remarkable gap in the International Relations literature devoted to exploring the implications of these changes. In part, this can be attributed to the discipline’s conservative tendencies; generally, International Relations theorists have resisted studying major discontinuity in the international system. The few studies that do attempt to account for change typically focus on modes of production or destruction as determinant variables. Though there are rare exceptions, many of them also tend towards a form of mono-causal reductionism. When considered at all, communications technologies are viewed through the prism of, or are reduced to, these other factors. This study seeks to remedy this gap by examining the relationship between large-scale shifts in modes of communication and “world order” transformation -- the structure or architecture of political authority at a world-level. Drawing from the work of various “medium theory” scholars, such as Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan, the study outlines an open-ended, non-reductive theory at the core of which is the argument that changes in modes of communication facilitate and constrain social forces and ideas latent in society. This hypothesized process can be likened to the interaction between species and a changing natural environment: new communications environments “favour” certain social forces and ideas by means of a functional bias towards some and not others, much the same as environments determine which species prosper by “selecting” for certain physical characteristics. In other words, social forces and ideas survive differentially according to their “fitness” or match with the new communications environment -- a process that is both open ended and contingent. The study is organized into two parts: Part one examines the relationship between printing and the medieval to modem world order transformation in Europe; Part two examines the relationship between new digital-electronic-telecommunications (called “hypermedia”) and the modem to postmodern world order transformation. The study suggests that the hypermedia communications environment is contributing to the dissolution of modern world order by facilitating the transnationalization of production, the globalization of finance, the rise of complex, non-territorial social networks, and the de-massification of “national” identities. The hypermedia environment is also helping to re-focus security concerns from an inter-national to an intra-planetary context. While it is far too early to provide a clear outline of the emerging postmodern world order, the trends that are unearthed in this study point away from single mass identities, linear political boundaries, and exclusive jurisdictions centred on territorial spaces, and towards multiple identities and non-territorial communities, overlapping boundaries, and non-exclusive jurisdictions.
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Ping, Jonathan H. "Middle power statecraft : Indonesia and Malaysia / Jonathan H. Ping." Thesis, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2440/22025.

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"October 2003"
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 364-412)
x, 412 leaves : ill., maps ; 30 cm.
Establishes a unifying theory for the concept of middle power. Hybridisation theory is presented as a basis for analysis, policy development and prediction of middle power statecraft and perceived power.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of History and Politics, Discipline of Politics, 2004
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Ping, Jonathan H. "Middle power statecraft : Indonesia and Malaysia / Jonathan H. Ping." 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2440/22025.

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"October 2003"
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 364-412)
x, 412 leaves : ill., maps ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Establishes a unifying theory for the concept of middle power. Hybridisation theory is presented as a basis for analysis, policy development and prediction of middle power statecraft and perceived power.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of History and Politics, Discipline of Politics, 2004
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GNYDIUK, Olga. "Who is a 'Ukrainian' child? : UNRRA/IRO welfare workers and the politics of unaccompanied children of presumed Ukrainian origin in the aftermath of WWII (1945-1952)." Doctoral thesis, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/57924.

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Defence date: 22 June 2018
Examining Board: Prof. Laura Lee Downs, European University Institute (EUI Supervisor); Prof. Alexander Etkind, European University Institute; Prof. Silvia Salvatici, Università degli Studi di Milano; Prof. Tara Zahra, University of Chicago
The care and rehabilitation of displaced, orphaned or lost children after World War II became a significant challenge for the international humanitarian organizations, as well as for the military governments in the occupied territories. This dissertation explores the policies and practices that the welfare authorities and officers of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) and International Refugee Organization (IRO), as well as American military officers in the US zone of Germany, formulated regarding the relief and resettlement of unaccompanied displaced children of Ukrainian origin between 1945 and 1952. From the autumn of 1945 onwards, the humanitarian officers with the approval of American officials in the US zone of Germany started to withhold Ukrainian children who originally came from the eastern Polish territories that were annexed by the Soviet Union from repatriation. The US military authorities declared that they did not recognize these children as Soviet citizens and instructed the welfare officers to consider them as nationals without governmental representation. As a result, the conflict over these children with the Soviet authorities, who were eager to repatriate them was inevitable. This dissertation explores how this geopolitical dispute shaped the policies of resettlement, care and welfare provision related to displaced children. By analyzing how the welfare officers and US military officials debated the national belonging and future destiny of these children, this study demonstrates how their decisions and activities in relation to Ukrainian children were founded on a humanitarian and political setting, which was formed by a pre-Cold War discourse. The examination of the IRO welfare officers' work with these children on the ground showed that repatriation to the Soviet Union was no longer considered to be in the best interests of Polish-Ukrainian children, while emigration and settlement in Germany was. This led the study to make a striking observation on how the IRO's welfare workers began to reconsider the future plans for the unaccompanied children who were living in German foster families. Namely, that from 1948, not long after the war had ended, welfare officers began to consider that allowing children to be adopted into German families would be in their best interests. Such opinions were voiced in spite of the Nazi’s Germanization program still being fresh in peoples’ memories, as well as more general fears that German society would hold a negative attitude towards foreign children. Finally, this case study provides a closer look at the complex relationships between the military and welfare authorities and officers that ranged from the disagreements about approaches to a child's resettlement to their joint work in the issues related to Ukrainian children.
Chapter 4 'Social Care in The Field' of the PhD thesis draws upon an earlier version published as chapter ''The advantages of repatriation do not offset the trauma of a removal' : IRO welfare workers and the problem of Ukrainian unaccompanied children in German foster families' in the book 'Freilegungen : rebuilding lives : child survivors and DP children in the aftermath of the Holocaust and forced labor'
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48

Regan, Christine Majella. "The Rimbaud of Leeds : a contextual study of the politics of Tony Harrison's poetry 1970-1985." Phd thesis, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/150435.

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The Rimbaud of Leeds is a literary contextual study of the political meanings of important poems by the Leeds poet Tony Harrison (1937- ). It is based on an examination of Harrison's non-dramatic original poetry that appears in The Loiners (1970), The School of Eloquence (1978-81), and the separately published v. (1985). Reference is made to other germane works and to Harrison's account of his work in interviews and prefaces. The principal focus of the thesis is the political character of the poetry. The poems selected for examination are exemplars of what I argue is Harrison's radical humanist and republican poetic, and of how issues of class and colonialism are interrelated in the poetry. The thesis locates the works in previously unnoticed or neglected contexts, and shows the critical importance of history for understanding the poems. It reveals Harrison's detailed engagement with the politics and history of England and Africa in particular. New contextual information necessary for understanding the political, historical, biographical and literary references in the poems is offered in this study. This dissertation attempts to sketch the key political and aesthetic features of the poetry. For the first time in Harrison scholarship, his poetry is seen as presenting an entwined biographical and political mythology for the Northern English working class. Harrison is here interpreted as a cosmopolitan Leeds poet whose Northern working{u00AD}class background, education and travels are the empirical materials of a highly cultured poetry of place. He emerges as a partisan political poet whose poems draw critical attention to an unequal relationship, in literature and in history, between the North and South in Britain. It is shown that an internationalist humanist sense of fraternity between the working class in the North of England and colonized peoples past and present suffuses the poetry. Particular attention is accorded to the presence in Harrison's political poetry of the poets John Milton (1608-74) and Arthur Rimbaud (1854-91). Milton is especially important for Harrison as a great republican poet. Rimbaud is of the first importance for Harrison's idea of himself as a poet. The significance of the life and work of Rimbaud has not been recognized in the scholarship on Harrison. This study seeks to illuminate Harrison's elective affinity with Rimbaud, and to show how Rimbaud haunts his imagination. This study argues that Harrison's political convictions and literary elective affinities have been consistent across the fifteen year span of the poetry selected for examination. This thesis indicates the dense allusive fields of the poetry and attends to the political and literary histories that enrich it. The aim in the thesis is to offer the first fully detailed contextual account of these remarkable poems and their politics.
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49

GLYNN, Irial. "International trends and national differences in asylum policymaking : Australia, Italy and Ireland compared, 1989-2008." Doctoral thesis, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/13276.

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Defence date: 23 November 2009
Examining Board: Prof. Jay Winter (Yale) [supervisor]; Prof. Rainer Bauböck (EUI); Prof. Gil Loescher (University of Oxford); Prof. Leo Lucassen (Leiden)
First made available online 20 March 2019
The primary purpose of this interdisciplinary study is to show the value of history in investigating asylum policymaking from 1989 to 2008. Chapter 1 provides a short summary of asylum before 1989. It focuses especially on the power, influence and composition of actors who advocated for generous asylum policies and actors who proposed restrictive asylum policies at crucial times throughout the twentieth century. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 analyse the case studies of Australia, Italy and Ireland. By setting traditional emigration countries against a traditional immigration country, EU countries against a non-EU country, Catholic countries against a multidenominational country, islands against a peninsula, common law states against a civil law state, as well as countries where boat people drove asylum debates against one that lacked boat people, many divergences and convergences emerged. Every country had, to a certain degree, a unique asylum system based on its own history, identity and geography. The comparative Chapter 5 reveals that despite inherent national differences, noticeable international asylum trends also appeared during this period. In contrast to people who applied for asylum during the Cold War, asylum applicants in the 1990s provided limited political and economic returns for receiver states. Accordingly, governing political parties inclined towards the formation of more restrictive asylum policies. But secular and religious NGOs, INGOs and certain opposition political parties loudly protested by referencing humanitarian ideals, national commitments to human rights and the rule of law. Acknowledging the challenges posed by actors sympathetic to asylum seekers, governments in the 2000s attempted to securitize and externalise asylum, reduce the influence of the courts, and expedite the deportation of rejected asylum seekers. The conclusion suggests that governments in Europe, North America and Australasia are likely to build on advances made through the 2000s to restrict asylum even further in the next decade, especially in the wake of the economic crisis of 2008- 09.
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50

Scott, Victoria Holly Francis. "La beauté est dans la rue : art & visual culture in Paris, 1968." Thesis, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/10958.

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Removed from its artistic origins in the French avant-garde during the interwar period, the European based group known as the situationist international is often represented as being solely occupied with politics to the exclusion of all else, particularly art and aesthetics. In what follows I argue that throughout the sixties the anti-aesthetic position was actually the governing model in France obliging the avant-garde to adjust their strategies accordingly. Artists and artists' collectives that placed politics before aesthetics were the norm, enjoying widespread popularity and recognition from both the public and the French State. These overtly partisan groups and individuals sapped art of the power it had enjoyed in the fifties as a venue removed, or at least distanced from, formal politics. In response, the situationists officially rejected the art world, turning to the popular and vernacular culture of the streets in an attempt to get beyond both classical aesthetic principals and the overt propagandistic objectives of groups such as le Salon de la jeunePeinture. Turning to the climactic moment of 1968 I track the ways in which these debates informed the posters and graffiti which marked the unfinished revolution, sorting out the various aesthetic positions and political persuasions that dominated the events. My thesis contends that the situationists were not anti-aesthetic, that they simply advocated a different kind of aesthetics: one that rejected traditional notions of beauty for the more active and open concept of poiesis or poetry. Beyond words on a page, this notion implied art as a way of life, emphasizing production, creation, formation and action and can be traced back to the groups prewar origins in the Dada and surrealist movements. Moreover, this concept of poetry was not adverse to issues of form being highly dependent on the materiality and physicality of the urban centre, specifically the streets. Finally my conclusion expands upon the similarities between this notion of poetry and the 17th century understanding of beauty, the latter concept being associated with a subtle criticality and strategic wit. It was this interpretation of beauty that defined and produced the art of 1968.
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