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Journal articles on the topic 'X-ray of low angle'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 13 February 2022

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1

Desouky, Omar S., Ahmed H. Ashour, Mohamed I. Abdullah, and Wael M. Elshemey. "Low-angle X-ray scattering from spices." Radiation Physics and Chemistry 64, no. 4 (July 2002): 267–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0969-806x(01)00410-8.

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2

Speller, R. D., and G. J. Royle. "Tissue Characterization Using Low Angle X-Ray Scattering." Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology 3, no. 2 (1992): 77–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/xst-1992-3201.

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3

Vanderstraeten, H., D. Neerinck, K. Temst, Y. Bruynseraede, E. E. Fullerton, and I. K. Schuller. "Low-angle X-ray diffraction of multilayered structures." Journal of Applied Crystallography 24, no. 5 (October 1, 1991): 571–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889891004156.

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4

Royle, G. J., and R. D. Speller. "Low angle X-ray scattering for bone analysis." Physics in Medicine and Biology 36, no. 3 (March 1, 1991): 383–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/36/3/006.

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5

Speller, R. "Tissue characterization using low angle x-ray scattering." Journal of X-Ray Science and Technology 3, no. 2 (February 1992): 77–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0895-3996(92)90001-z.

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6

Sato, Y., T. Hashimoto, M. Ichihashi, Y. Ueki, K. Hirose, and T. Kamino. "Comparison of high-angle take-off and low-angle take-off EDX detector geometry of the HF-2000 FE-TEM." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 51 (August 1, 1993): 252–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100147107.

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Analytical TEMs have two variations in x-ray detector geometry, high and low angle take off. The high take off angle is advantageous for accuracy of quantitative analysis, because the x rays are less absorbed when they go through the sample. The low take off angle geometry enables better sensitivity because of larger detector solid angle.Hitachi HF-2000 cold field emission TEM has two versions; high angle take off and low angle take off. The former allows an energy dispersive x-ray detector above the objective lens. The latter allows the detector beside the objective lens. The x-ray take off angle is 68° for the high take off angle with the specimen held at right angles to the beam, and 22° for the low angle take off. The solid angle is 0.037 sr for the high angle take off, and 0.12 sr for the low angle take off, using a 30 mm2 detector.

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7

Almeida, A. P. G., D. Braz, R. C. Barroso, and R. T. Lopes. "Low-angle X-ray scattering properties of irradiated spices." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 580, no. 1 (September 2007): 764–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.05.102.

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8

Elshemey, Wael M., Omar S. Desouky, and Ahmed H. Ashour. "Low-angle x-ray scattering from lyophilized blood constituents." Physics in Medicine and Biology 46, no. 2 (January 25, 2001): 531–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/46/2/318.

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9

XU, MING, WENXUE YU, GUANGMING LUO, CHUNLING CHAI, TONG ZHAO, FAN CHEN, ZHENHONG MAI, WUYAN LAI, ZHONGHUA WU, and DEWU WANG. "ON THE CHARACTERIZATION OF METALLIC SUPERLATTICE STRUCTURES BY X-RAY DIFFRACTION." Modern Physics Letters B 13, no. 19 (August 20, 1999): 663–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s021798499900083x.

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To solve the problem on the microstructural characterization of metallic superlattices, taking the NiFe/Cu superlattices as example, we show that the structures of metallic superlattices can be characterized exactly by combining low-angle X-ray diffraction with high-angle X-ray diffraction. First, we determine exactly the total film thickness by a straightforward and precise method based on a modified Bragg law from the subsidiary maxima around the low-angle X-ray diffraction peak. Then, by combining with the simulation of high-angle X-ray diffraction, we obtain the structural parameters such as the superlattice period, the sublayer and buffer thickness. This characterization procedure is also applicable to other types of metallic superlattices.

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10

Bukreeva, Inna, Andrea Sorrentino, Alessia Cedola, Ennio Giovine, Ana Diaz, Fernando Scarinci, Werner Jark, Leonid Ognev, and Stefano Lagomarsino. "Periodically structured X-ray waveguides." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 20, no. 5 (July 24, 2013): 691–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049513018657.

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The properties of X-ray vacuum-gap waveguides (WGs) with additional periodic structure on one of the reflecting walls are studied. Theoretical considerations, numerical simulations and experimental results confirm that the periodic structure imposes additional conditions on efficient propagation of the electromagnetic field along the WGs. The transmission is maximum for guided modes that possess sufficient phase synchronism with the periodic structure (here called `super-resonances'). The field inside the WGs is essentially given at low incidence angle by the fundamental mode strongly coupled with the corresponding phased-matched mode. Both the simulated and the experimental diffraction patterns show in the far field that propagation takes place essentially only for low incidence angles, confirming the mode filtering properties of the structured X-ray waveguides.

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11

Jenkins, Ron. "New Directions in the X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Organic Materials." Advances in X-ray Analysis 35, A (1991): 653–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800009381.

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AbstractThe analysis of crystalline organic phases by X-ray powder diffraction presents special problems, beyond those typically associated with inorganic materials. The large unit cells often associated with organic compounds, combined with the low symmetry of the structures, give rather complicated diffraction patterns which contain many low angle lines. The Bragg-Brentano geometric arrangement employed in most commercial diffractometers gives maximum d-spacing error at low diffraction angles. This, in turn, means that not only can the large d-spacing data be of poor quality, but also that much of the low angle data required for the indexing of the pattern is subject to large errors.

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12

Squire, J. M., H. A. AL-Khayat, J. J. Harford, L. Hudson, T. Irving, C. Knupp, and M. K. Reedy. "Modelling muscle motor conformations using low-angle X-ray diffraction." IEE Proceedings - Nanobiotechnology 150, no. 3 (2003): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/ip-nbt:20031094.

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13

Spei, M., and A. Conrads. "Low-angle X-ray investigations of detergent treated soft keratins." Colloid & Polymer Science 264, no. 7 (July 1986): 648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01412607.

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14

He, Bob B. "Measurement of Residual Stresses in Thin Films by Two-Dimensional XRD." Materials Science Forum 524-525 (September 2006): 613–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.524-525.613.

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This paper introduces the recent progress in two-dimensional X-ray diffraction as well as its applications in residual stress analysis in thin films. The stress measurement with twodimensional x-ray diffraction can be done with low incident angle and is not limited to the peaks with high two-theta angles like the conventional method. When residual stresses of thin films are measured, a low incident angle is preferred to maximize the diffraction signals from the thin films surfaces instead of from the substrates and matrix materials. Since one stress measurement at one fixed incident angle is possible, stress gradients in depth can be measured by series of incident angles. Some experimental examples are given to show the stress measurement at low and fixed incident angle.

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15

Maki, Ryosuke S. S., Peter E. D. Morgan, and Yoshikazu Suzuki. "X-ray powder diffraction characterization of the large-volume unit cell of the M8 murataite polytype." Powder Diffraction 31, no. 1 (February 17, 2016): 8–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0885715615000913.

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We have used conventional X-ray powder diffraction to study one of the largest volume inorganic mixed oxide unit-supercell structures done so far. This necessitated some small-angle X-ray scattering-like observations at low angles from <2° 2θto concord with electron diffraction, which had indicated an 8 × 8 × 8 huge volume supercell of a fluorite-type basic sub-cell. Emphasis is on the detection of, possibly very weak, fingerprint, low-angle/long lines/peaks which will indicate the (often unsuspected) presence of complex polytypic arrangements of simple very strong basic sub-cells and so facilitate future synthetic studies.

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16

Luggar, R. D., J. A. Horrocks, R. D. Speller, and R. J. Lacey. "Low angle X-ray scatter for explosives detection: A geometry optimization." Applied Radiation and Isotopes 48, no. 2 (February 1997): 215–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0969-8043(96)00212-6.

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17

Bocchi, C., C. Ferrari, L. Lazzarini, G. Leonardi, and L. Tullii. "Low-angle X-ray diffraction study of Mo-Si multilayered structures." Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations of Crystallography 49, s1 (August 21, 1993): c366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0108767378089734.

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18

Elshemey, Wael M., Anwar A. Elsayed, and Ali El-Lakkani. "Characteristics of low-angle x-ray scattering from some biological samples." Physics in Medicine and Biology 44, no. 12 (November 10, 1999): 2907–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/44/12/304.

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19

Chiang, Wen‐C, and David V. Baxter. "Low‐angle x‐ray diffraction withinsituannealing: Application to W/Cu multilayers." Journal of Applied Physics 74, no. 7 (October 1993): 4331–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.354398.

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20

Ming, Xu, Yang Tao, Yu Wen-xue, Yang Ning, Liu Cui-xiu, Mai Zhen-hong, Lai Wu-yan, and Tao Kun. "Accurate determination of film thickness by low-angle X-ray reflection." Chinese Physics 9, no. 11 (November 2000): 833–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1009-1963/9/11/007.

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21

Perkins, S. J., A. W. Ashton, M. K. Boehm, and D. Chamberlain. "Molecular structures from low angle X-ray and neutron scattering studies." International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 22, no. 1 (February 1998): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0141-8130(97)00088-3.

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22

Schauer, K., and W. Wilke. "Wide-angle X-ray scattering studies on polyethylene at low temperatures." Polymer Bulletin 34, no. 4 (April 1995): 477–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00306243.

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23

Khorramian, B. A., and S. S. Stivala. "Small-angle x-ray scattering of high- and low-affinity heparin." Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 247, no. 2 (June 1986): 384–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(86)90597-7.

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24

Kubala-Kukuś, A., D. Banaś, M. Pajek, J. Braziewicz, S. Góźdź, J. Szlachetko, J. Semaniak, et al. "Low-Angle X-Ray Spectroscopy and Reflectometry Techniques in Interdisciplinary Applications." Acta Physica Polonica A 139, no. 3 (March 2021): 247–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.12693/aphyspola.139.247.

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25

Gilles, R., U. Keiderling, and A. Wiedenmann. "Silver behenate powder as a possible low-angle calibration standard for small-angle neutron scattering." Journal of Applied Crystallography 31, no. 6 (December 1, 1998): 957–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889898004440.

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Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) is a transmission method working in the angular range 0.4–6° (2θ). In this paper, silver behenate powder [CH3(CH2)20COOAg] (referred to as `AgBE'), one of the very few materials featuring Bragg reflections in the angular range accessible to SANS instruments, is suggested as a possible new SANS wavelength calibration standard. In the past, this powder has been successfully tested as a calibration standard in low-angle X-ray diffraction. Results of new SANS wavelength calibration measurements performed with AgBE and with the traditional method of time-of-flight measurements are presented and compared with low-angle X-ray diffraction measurements.

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26

Rafaja, David, Volker Klemm, Gerhard Schreiber, Michael Knapp, and Radomír Kužel. "Interference phenomena observed by X-ray diffraction in nanocrystalline thin films." Journal of Applied Crystallography 37, no. 4 (July 17, 2004): 613–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889804012701.

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An increase of the X-ray diffraction line broadening with increasing diffraction angle was observed experimentally in nanocrystalline thin films. Such a change of the line width is usually related to the microstrain in the sample, which, however, contradicts the assumptions that the microstrain is relatively low in nanocrystalline materials and that the line broadening is caused mainly by small crystallite size. For nanocrystalline thin films, the observed changes in the diffraction line broadening are explained by a partial coherence of adjacent crystallites, which is stronger at low diffraction angles than at high diffraction angles. Furthermore, it is found that the degree of coherence of the adjacent crystallites depends on their size and preferred orientation. Smaller crystallites show better coherence, because the corresponding reciprocal-lattice points are broadened compared with those related to large crystallites. A strong preferred orientation improves further the coherence of the adjacent crystallites. Theoretical results are confirmed by experimental data obtained on nanocrystalline (Ti,Al)N thin films using a combination of glancing-angle X-ray diffraction, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and X-ray texture analysis.

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27

Li, Youli, Roy Beck, Tuo Huang, Myung Chul Choi, and Morito Divinagracia. "Scatterless hybrid metal–single-crystal slit for small-angle X-ray scattering and high-resolution X-ray diffraction." Journal of Applied Crystallography 41, no. 6 (November 11, 2008): 1134–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889808031129.

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A simple hybrid design has been developed to produce practically scatterless aperture slits for small-angle X-ray scattering and high-resolution X-ray diffraction. The hybrid slit consists of a rectangular single-crystal substrate (e.g.Si or Ge) bonded to a high-density metal base with a large taper angle (> 10°). The beam-defining single-crystal tip is oriented far from any Bragg peak position with respect to the incident beam and hence produces none of the slit scattering commonly associated with conventional metal slits. It has been demonstrated that the incorporation of the scatterless slits leads to a much simplified design in small-angle X-ray scattering instruments employing only one or two apertures, with dramatically increased intensity (a threefold increase observed in the test setup) and improved low-angle resolution.

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28

Kumagai, Akari, Fernando G. Dupuy, Zoran Arsov, Yasmene Elhady, Diamond Moody, Robert K. Ernst, Berthony Deslouches, Ronald C. Montelaro, Y. Peter Di, and Stephanie Tristram-Nagle. "Elastic behavior of model membranes with antimicrobial peptides depends on lipid specificity and d-enantiomers." Soft Matter 15, no. 8 (2019): 1860–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8sm02180e.

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(A) Low-angle X-ray scattering (LAXS) of oriented, fully hydrated model membranes yields bending modulus (K_C) and (B) wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) yields lipid chain order parameter (S_X-ray).

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29

Dong, Yanting, Javier A. García, James F. Steiner, and Lijun Gou. "The spin measurement of the black hole in 4U 1543-47 constrained with the X-ray reflected emission." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 493, no. 3 (March 5, 2020): 4409–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/staa606.

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ABSTRACT 4U 1543-47 is a low-mass X-ray binary that harbours a stellar-mass black hole located in our Milky Way galaxy. In this paper, we revisit seven data sets that were in the Steep Power Law state of the 2002 outburst. The spectra were observed by the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. We have carefully modelled the X-ray reflection spectra and made a joint-fit to these spectra with relxill for the reflected emission. We found a moderate black hole spin, which is $0.67_{-0.08}^{+0.15}$ at 90 per cent statistical confidence. Negative and low spins (<0.5) at more than 99 per cent statistical confidence are ruled out. In addition, our results indicate that the model requires a supersolar iron abundance: $5.05_{-0.26}^{+1.21}$, and the inclination angle of the inner disc is $36.3_{-3.4}^{+5.3}$ deg. This inclination angle is appreciably larger than the binary orbital inclination angle (∼21 deg); this difference is possibly a systematic artefact of the artificially low density employed in the reflection model for this X-ray binary system.

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30

Lühl, Lars, Konstantin Andrianov, Hanna Dierks, Andreas Haidl, Aurelie Dehlinger, Markus Heine, Jörg Heeren, Thomas Nisius, Thomas Wilhein, and Birgit Kanngießer. "Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy with efficient X-ray fluorescence detection (STXM-XRF) for biomedical applications in the soft and tender energy range." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 26, no. 2 (January 21, 2019): 430–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577518016879.

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Scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, especially in combination with X-ray fluorescence detection (STXM-XRF) in the soft X-ray energy range, is becoming an increasingly important tool for life sciences. Using X-ray fluorescence detection, the study of biochemical mechanisms becomes accessible. As biological matrices generally have a low fluorescence yield and thus a low fluorescence signal, high detector efficiency (e.g. large solid angle) is indispensable for avoiding long measurement times and radiation damage. Here, the new AnImaX STXM-XRF microscope equipped with a large solid angle of detection enabling fast scans and the first proof-of-principle measurements on biomedical samples are described. In addition, characterization measurements for future quantitative elemental imaging are presented.

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31

Kirby, Nigel M., Stephen T. Mudie, Adrian M. Hawley, David J. Cookson, Haydyn D. T. Mertens, Nathan Cowieson, and Vesna Samardzic-Boban. "A low-background-intensity focusing small-angle X-ray scattering undulator beamline." Journal of Applied Crystallography 46, no. 6 (November 15, 2013): 1670–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s002188981302774x.

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The SAXS/WAXS beamline at the Australian Synchrotron is an advanced and flexible undulator X-ray scattering beamline used for small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering analysis on a wide variety of solids, fluids and surfaces across a diverse range of research and development fields. The beamline has numerous features that minimize the intensity of the instrument background, provide automated stable optics, and allow accurate analysis of very weakly scattering samples. The geometric and intensity requirements of a three-slit collimation system are described in detail for conventional metal and single-crystal germanium slits. Straightforward ray tracing and simple linear projections describe the observed direct beam as well as parasitic background scattering geometry of the beamline at its longest camera length, providing a methodology for the design and operation of similar beamlines. As an aid to instrument design, the limit of background intensity determined by the intensity incident on single-crystal germanium guard slit edges and itsqdependence was quantified at 11 keV. Details of the beamline's implementation, underlying optical concept and measured performance are given.

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32

Hansford, G. M. "Phase-targeted X-ray diffraction." Journal of Applied Crystallography 49, no. 5 (September 1, 2016): 1561–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600576716011936.

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A powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) method to enhance the signal of a specific crystalline phase within a mixture is presented for the first time. Specificity to the targeted phase relies on finding coincidences in the ratios of crystal d spacings and the ratios of elemental characteristic X-ray energies. Such coincidences can be exploited so that the two crystal planes diffract through the same scattering angle at two different X-ray energies. An energy-resolving detector placed at the appropriate scattering angle will detect a significantly enhanced signal at these energies if the target mineral or phase is present in the sample. When implemented using high scattering angles, for example 2θ > 150°, the method is tolerant to sample morphology and distance on the scale of ∼2 mm. The principle of the method is demonstrated experimentally using Pd Lα1 and Pd Lβ1 emission lines to enhance the diffraction signal of quartz. Both a pure quartz powder pellet and an unprepared mudstone rock specimen are used to test and develop the phase-targeted method. The technique is further demonstrated in the sensitive detection of retained austenite in steel samples using a combination of In Lβ1 and Ti Kβ emission lines. For both these examples it is also shown how the use of an attenuating foil, with an absorption edge close to and above the higher-energy characteristic X-ray line, can serve to isolate to some degree the coincidence signals from other fluorescence and diffraction peaks in the detected spectrum. The phase-targeted XRD technique is suitable for implementation using low-cost off-the-shelf components in a handheld or in-line instrument format.

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33

Xiaoming, Jiang, and Wu Ziqin. "Bragg's Law with Refractive Correction of Low-angle x-ray Diffraction for Periodic Multilayers." Chinese Physics Letters 8, no. 7 (July 1991): 356–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0256-307x/8/7/008.

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34

Janicki, Jaroslaw. "Time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering and wide-angle X-ray diffraction studies on the nanostructure of melt-processable molecular composites." Journal of Applied Crystallography 36, no. 4 (July 19, 2003): 986–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889803008495.

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Novel melt-processable molecular composites were obtained from isotactic polypropylene (iPP) and liquid-crystalline oligoester (LCO). The nanostructure and thermal behaviour of molecular composites were examined by real-time synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering and wide-angle X-ray diffraction methods, and differential scanning calorimetry. The synthesized oligoester, with low melting temperature (391 K), exhibits the ability to form a thermotropic mesophase. It was shown that strong rigid rod-like macromolecules of LCO are dispersed at the molecular scale in iPP matrix and act as reinforcing fibres.

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35

Desouky, Omar S., Wael M. Elshemey, Nabila S. Selim, and Ahmed H. Ashour. "Analysis of low-angle x-ray scattering peaks from lyophilized biological samples." Physics in Medicine and Biology 46, no. 8 (July 6, 2001): 2099–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/46/8/305.

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36

Pinto, N. G. V., E. R. Cardoso, A. P. G. Almeida, D. Braz, R. T. Lopes, and R. C. Barroso. "Analysis of low-angle X-ray scattering profiles from irradiated blood samples." International Journal of Low Radiation 6, no. 4 (2009): 360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijlr.2009.029315.

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37

Fedorov, A. G. "Simulation of low angle X-ray diffraction on multilayers subjected to diffusion." Semiconductor Physics, Quantum Electronics and Optoelectronics 3, no. 4 (December 12, 2000): 554–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/spqeo3.04.554.

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38

Moonen, J., C. Pathmamanoharan, and A. Vrij. "Small-angle X-ray scattering of silica dispersions at low particle concentrations." Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 131, no. 2 (September 1989): 349–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(89)90178-1.

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39

Iyengar, S. S., M. W. Santana, H. Windischmann, and P. Engler. "Analysis of Surface Layers and Thin Films by Low Incident Angle X-Ray Diffraction." Advances in X-ray Analysis 30 (1986): 457–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800021613.

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Due to the current high interest in characterizing epitaxially deposited thin films required by the electronics industry as well as the increased attention in elucidating reactions between solid surfaces and the environment (e.g., corrosion), investigators have increased their efforts in developing X-ray procedures for analyzing films and surfaces less than 2 μm thick. For example, an entire session of the 1985 Denver Conference on Applications of X-ray Analysis was devoted to this subject and an excellent review of X-ray diffraction techniques for characterizing thin films was recently published by Segmuller (1). Specific techniques include grazing incidence diffraction (2, 3), double crystal diffraction (3), and the use of the Seemann-Bohlin focusing geometry (4, 5).

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40

Lei, Zuotao, Aleksei Okunev, Chongqiang Zhu, Galina Verozubova, and Chunhui Yang. "Low-angle boundaries in ZnGeP2single crystals." Journal of Applied Crystallography 51, no. 2 (February 21, 2018): 361–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600576718001097.

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The structure of low-angle boundaries in ZnGeP2crystals grown by the vertical Bridgman technique was studied using Borrmann X-ray topography. The slip systems of the dislocations in the boundaries were identified by studying the contrast rosettes generated by the Borrmann effect, in the region near the dislocation core. It was shown that the boundaries are of two types: type I consists of edge dislocations of the {1\overline{1}0}〈110〉 slip system, and type II of edge and mixed dislocations of the {010}〈100〉 slip system. The boundaries of both types, consisting of pure edge dislocations with lines along [001], are symmetrical tilt boundaries with [001] rotation axes. The misorientations generated by the boundaries were estimated to range between 2–20 and 1–40′′, respectively. Low-angle boundaries are thought to be formed by polygonization of dislocations, caused by thermoelastic stresses.

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41

Streltsov, Victor A., Philip N. H. Nakashima, and Andrew W. S. Johnson. "A Combination Method of Charge Density Measurement in Hard Materials Using Accurate, Quantitative Electron and X-ray Diffraction: The α-Al2O3 Case." Microscopy and Microanalysis 9, no. 5 (September 16, 2003): 419–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927603030356.

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Current X-ray diffraction techniques intended for “ideally imperfect” specimens provide structure factors only on a relative scale and ever-present multiple scattering in strong low-angle Bragg reflections is difficult to correct. Multiple scattering is implicit in the quantitative convergent beam electron diffraction (QCBED) method, which provides absolutely scaled structure factors. Conventional single crystal X-ray diffraction has proved adequate in softer materials where crystal perfection is limited. In hard materials, the highly perfect nature of the crystals is often a difficulty, due to the inadequacy of the conventional corrections for multiple scattering (extinction corrections). The present study on α-Al2O3 exploits the complementarity of synchrotron X-ray measurements for weak and medium intensities and QCBED measurement of the strong low-angle reflections. Two-dimensional near zone axis QCBED data from different crystals at various accelerating voltages, thicknesses, and orientations have been matched using Bloch-wave and multislice methods. The reproducibility of QCBED data is better than 0.5%. The low-angle strong QCBED structure factors were combined with middle and high-angle extinction-free data from synchrotron X-ray diffraction measurements. Static deformation charge density maps for α-Al2O3 have been calculated from a multipole expansion model refined using the combined QCBED and X-ray data.

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Kerdlapee, Pongsak, Anurat Wisitsoraat, K. Leksakul, D. Phokharatkul, R. Phatthanakun, and Adisorn Tuantranont. "Low Cost and High Resolution X-Ray Lithography for Fabrication of Microactuator." Advanced Materials Research 254 (May 2011): 66–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.254.66.

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In this work, low-cost and high resolution X-ray lithography is developed by employing low-cost sputtered lift-off lead film on mylar sheet substrate and applied for fabrication of electrostatic actuators. X-ray mask was fabricated by conventional photolithography, Pb sputtering and lift-off process. The Pb mask is used for X-ray lithography of electrostatic actuator structures with 5 µm interdigitate electrodes. For 140 µm-thick SU-8 photoresist on Cr-coated glass substrates, Pb film thickness of around 10 µm was used to block X-ray with 95% x-ray image contrast at a critical dose of 4,200mJ/cm3. A high aspect ratio of 26.5 of SU8 microstructure with 5 µm lateral resolution has been achieved by the developed low cost Pb based X-ray mask. In addition, a steep sidewall angle of nearly 90o for SU-8 structure is confirmed. The results demonstrate that the Pb based X-ray mask offers high resolution X-ray lithography at a very low cost and is promising for microactuator applications.

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Baribeau, J. ‐M. "Low angle x‐ray reflection study of ultrathin Ge films on (100) Si." Applied Physics Letters 57, no. 17 (October 22, 1990): 1748–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.104055.

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Froder, M., P. Hessler, and T. Weiss. "Separation of left and right skull bones from low angle X-ray projections." Physics in Medicine and Biology 35, no. 6 (June 1, 1990): 703–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/35/6/001.

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Hollanders, Mark A., and Barend J. Thijsse. "Low-angle X-ray diffraction study of solid state amorphization in an multilayer." Journal of the Less Common Metals 140 (June 1988): 33–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-5088(88)90365-7.

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TAKENAKA, H., K. NAGAI, H. ITO, S. ICHIMARU, T. SAKUMA, K. NAMIKAWA, Y. MURAMATSU, E. GULLIKSON, and C. C. PERERA. "SOFT X-RAY REFLECTIVITY AND THERMAL STABILITY OF CoCr/C MULTILAYER X-RAY MIRRORS." Surface Review and Letters 09, no. 01 (February 2002): 593–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218625x02002701.

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The development of highly reflective multilayer mirrors for use in the wavelength region around 6 nm is desired for X-ray photoemission spectroscopy for inner-shell excitation using a Schwarzschild objective. For this application, reflectivity is the most critical parameter determining the performance of multilayer mirrors, because the reflectivity of multilayers in the 6 nm region is generally very low. We have designed CoCr/C multilayer mirrors with a comparatively high reflectivity at around normal incidence and have fabricated them by magnetron sputtering. The measured peak reflectivity is about 16% at a wavelength of around 6 nm and an incident angle of 88°. The reflectivity remains almost constant for 4 h under 300°C in an Ar atmosphere.

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Legall, Herbert, Holger Stiel, Matthias Schnürer, Marcel Pagels, Birgit Kanngießer, Matthias Müller, Burkhard Beckhoff, et al. "An efficient X-ray spectrometer based on thin mosaic crystal films and its application in various fields of X-ray spectroscopy." Journal of Applied Crystallography 42, no. 4 (May 30, 2009): 572–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889809006803.

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X-ray optics with high energy resolution and collection efficiency are required in X-ray spectroscopy for investigations of chemistry and coordination. This is particularly the case if the X-ray source emits a rather weak signal into a large solid angle. In the present work the performance of a spectrometer based on thin mosaic crystals was investigated for different spectroscopic methods using various X-ray sources. It was found that, even with low-power X-ray sources, advanced high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy can be performed.

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Holmes, K. C., and G. Rosenbaum. "How X-ray Diffraction with Synchrotron Radiation Got Started." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, no. 3 (May 1, 1998): 147–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049597018578.

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The need to record low-angle-scattering X-ray fibre diagrams from muscle with millisecond time resolution drove the use of synchrotron radiation as an X-ray light source. The first smudgy diffraction patterns were obtained from a slice of insect flight muscle. Out of this grew the EMBL Outstation at DESY.

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Nicholls, A. W. "A comparison of two windowless x-ray detector designs on VG HB501 STEMs." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 46 (1988): 672–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100105424.

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Windowless X-ray detectors are routinely used on VG HB501 STEMs allowing detection of all elements from B upwards (fig 1). The original design for the HB501 built by Link Analytical had a theoretical solid angle of 0.077sr but recently a new design has appeared with a solid angle of 0.181sr. In order to compare these two designs it would be useful to develop a test that could be carried out on the microscope column that would accurately characterise the performance of the detector in the low energy range (<1keV) as well as at higher energies. Recently there has been much interest in characterising X-ray detector microscope systems using the peak to background (P' B) ratio from specially prepared evaporated Cr films. As an extension to this method this type of specimen has-been used to look at the ratio of effective detector solid angles and also the low energy area by comparing CrK to CrL intensities in order to fully characterise the detectors on VG HB501 STEMs.

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Sarkar, S. K., and B. K. De. "Some studies on low-frequency signal in relation to X-ray flares and climatic conditions." Annales Geophysicae 12, no. 10/11 (August 31, 1994): 1119–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00585-994-1119-8.

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Abstract. The statistical behaviour of the sudden enhancement in signal strength (SES) in relation to solar X-ray flares has been studied for the near east-west propagation of 40 kHz radio waves from Sanwa (36°11'N; 139°51'E) in Japan to Calcutta (22°34'N; 88°24'E) over a long distance path of 5100 km for a period of two years. The period has been divided into four phases - P1, P2, P3 and P4, according to the position of the overhead sun. The change in signal strength during X-ray flares is dependent on the solar zenith angle and climatic conditions. The statistical modal values of the time lag of the SES peak with respect to that solar X-ray flare is found to increase as solar zenith angle increases. The relative rates of increase and decrease of the signal strength (RRISS and RRDSS respectively) have been evaluated for a number of SES which are related to large X-ray flares. Their characteristics have also been investigated. The modal values of the relaxation time have been found to be highly correlated with climatic conditions like temperature and humidity of the propagation path.

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