Academic literature on the topic 'Xitsonga language – Grammar'

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study investigates the nature of Xitsonga deverbatives that are derived from three types of syntactic verbs, namely intransitive verbs, monotranstive verbs and ditransitive verbs .The aim is to determine the classes in which nominalisation occurs as well as to determine the semantic features which occur with these deverbatives in various noun classes. The three types of verbs are further distinguished into agentive verbs and non-agentive verbs. The deverbatives that are examined in this study are arranged in terms of Levin (1993)’s semantic classification of verbs. The focus of this study is on the verbs without derivational suffixes. However, few deverbatives with derived verbal forms have been included. The nominal morphology of Xitsonga is also examined in this study The study is conducted within the framework of four assumptions in morphology and lexical semantics, namely lexeme-based theory, X-bar syntax, lexical semantic properties of verb classes advanced by Levin (1993), and the Generative Lexicon theory advanced by Pustejovsky (1995), specifically the assumption about the meta-entry for a lexeme. The study illustrates that nominalisation in Xitsonga, in particular, and in African Languages in general occurs through the affixation of the class prefix and the nominal suffix onto the verb stem. The study found that the deverbal nominals occur in a similar morphological structure to that of nonderived nouns. It was also demonstrated that Xitsonga deverbatives may be classified in terms of Busa’s view of distinguishing between stage-level nominals and individual-level nominals. The study has established that nominalisation in Xitsonga is a phenomenon that occurs in classes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 14 with both agentive and non-agentive verbs as verb stems. It however, found that the most productive classes are 1, 3,5,7,and 14. The study demonstrated that class 1 deverbatives refer strictly to humans, while deverbatives in other classes refer to various things. The data examined in this study revealed that in general, Xitsonga deverbatives exhibit the following semantic features across various noun classes: [Actor], [Experiencer], [Theme], [Patient] [Result], [Event], [Act], [State], [Artifact], [Instrument]. [Excessive act], [Excessive state], [Place], [Expert], [Excessive actor], [Excessive experiencer], [Excessive theme], and [Excessive patient].
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie ondersoek die aard van deverbatiewe naamwoorde in Xitsonga wat afgelei word vanaf drie soorte werkwoorde, naamlik, intransitiewe, enkel-transitiewe en dubbel-transitiewe werkwoorde. Die doelstelling van die studie is om te bepaal in watter naamwoordklasse nominalisering kan voorkom, en wat die semantiese kenmerke is van die deverbatiewe wat in die verskillende naamwoordklasse voorkom. Die drie tipes werkwoordklasse word voorts onderskei in terme van agentiewe en nieagentiewe werkwoorde. Die deverbatiewe naamwoorde wat in die studie ondersoek word, word verder onderskei volgens die klassifikasie van semantiese werkwoordklasse van Levin (1993). Die studie fokus op naamwoorde afgelei van werkwoorde sonder afleidingsagtervoegsels. Nietemin is enkele werkwoordvorme met afleidings-agtervoegsels ingesluit. Die studie ondersoek ook die naamwoordmorfologie van Xitsonga. Die studie is onderneem binne die raamwerk van vier breë weergawes van morfologie, sintaksis en leksikale semantiek, naamlik morfeem-lekseem gebaseerde teorie, X-balk sintaksis, Levin (1993) se semantiese werkwoordklas klassefikasie, en Generatiewe Leksikon Teorie van Pustejovsky (1995), in die besonder die aanname van die meta-inskrywing vir die lekseem. Die studie bevestig dat nominalisering in Xitsonga, soos in die Afrikatale in die algemeen, manifesteer deur die affiksering van 'n prefiks en 'n suffiks aan die werkwoordstam waarvandaan die naamwoord afgelei word. Die studie het bevind dat afgeleide naamwoorde in 'n soortgelyke morfologiese struktuur voorkom as nie-afgeleide naamwoorde in Xitsonga. Daar is ook bevind dat Xitsonga deverbatiewe geklassifiseer kan word in terme van Busa se onderskeid tussen fase-vlak en individuele-vlak nominate. Die studie het bevind dat nominalisering in Xitsonga voorkom in klasse 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 en 14, afgelei van sowel agentiewe as nie-agentiewe werkwoord stamme. Daar is bevind dat die mees produktiewe klasse, klas 1, 3, 5, 7 en 14 is. Die studie het voorts aangetoon dat klas 1 deverbatiewe slegs mensverwysing het, terwyl die deverbatiewe in ander klasse na 'n verskeidenheid semantiese entiteite verwys. Volgens die data wat ondersoek is, volg dit dat Xitsonga deverbatiewe in die algemeen, die volgende semantiese kenmerke vertoon oor die verskillende naamwoordklasse: [Akteur], [Ervaarder], [Tema], [Pasiënt], [Resultaat], [Gebeurtenis], [Aksie], [Toestand], [Artifak], [Instrument], [Oordrewe aksie], [Plek], [Ekspert], [Oordrewe akteur], [Oordrewe ervaarder], [Oordrewe tema] en [Oordrewe pasiënt].
NKOMISO: Dyondzo leyi yi kambisisa xivumbeko xa mavitimpfelelo ya Xitsonga lama ya pfelelaka ya suka eka tinxaka tinharhu ta maendli ma le ka vulongoloxamarito, ku nga, maendli yo pfumala xiendliwa, maendli ya xiendliwa xin’we, na maendli ya swiendliwa swimbirhi. Xikongomelo i ku lava ku kumisisa mitlawa ya maviti leyi pfumelelaka mpfelelo wa maviti ku humelela ni ku kumisisa swihlawulekisi swa tinhlamuselo leswi kumekaka eka mavitimpfelelo eka mitlawa yo hambanahambana. Tinxaka tinharhu ta maendli ti tlhela ti hambanyisiwa ku ya hi maendli ya nghingiriko ni maendli yo pfumala nghingiriko. Mavitimpfelelo lama kambisisiwaka eka dyondzo leyi ma longoloxiwa hi ku ya hi maavelo ya maendli ya Levin (1993). Mhakankulu leyi dyondzo leyi yi langutanaka na yona yi le ka maendli mo pfumala swilandzi swa mpfelelo. Hambiswiritano, mavitimpfelelo ma nga ri mangani lama nga na swilandzi swa mpfelelo ma katsiwile eka dyondzo leyi. Mofoloji ya Xitsonga ya kambisisiwa na yona eka dyondzo leyi. Dyondzo leyi yi endliwa hi ku landza endlelo leri katsaka mavonelo ma mune eka mofoloji ni le ka semantiki, ku nga Lexeme -based theory, X – bar syntax, lexical semantics properties of verb classes leyi tumbuluxeke hi Levin (1993), na Generative Lexicon theory leyi tumbuluxeke hi Pustejovsky (1995), ku kongomisiwa ngopfu eka meta-entry ya rito.Dyondzo leyi yi kombisa leswaku mpfelelo wa maviti eka Xitsonga, hi ku kongomisa, na le ka tindzimi ta Xintima hi ku angarhela, wu va kona hikokwalaho ka ku lungeleriwa ka xirhangi xa ntlawa na xilandzi xa riendli eka nsinya wa riendli. Dyondzo leyi yi kumile leswaku mavitimpfelolo ma tirhisa xifaniso xa murhi xo fana na xa maviti mo ka ma nga ri ma mpfelelo. Ku tlhele ku kombisiwa leswaku mavitimpfelelo ya Xitsonga ma nga aviwa hi ku landza vonelo ra Busa (1996) ro hambanyisa exikarhi ka mavitipfelelo lama thyiwaka munhu hi ku landza mhaka leyi humelelaka hi nkarhi wolowo ni lama ya thyiwaka munhu hi ku ya hi mhaka leyi fambelanisiwaka na munhu wa kona, hambi a nga ri ku yi endleni hi nkarhi wolowo. Dyondzo leyi yi kumile leswaku mpfelelo wa maviti eka Xitsonga I mhaka leyi humelelaka eka mitlawa ya maviti ya 1,3,4,6,7,8,9, and 14 eka maendli ya nghingiriko ni yo pfumala nghingiriko. Hambiswiritano, ku kumekile leswaku mitlawa leyi mpfelelo wu humelelaka ngopfu eka yona I ya 1,3,5,7, and 14. Dyondzo leyi yi kombisile leswaku mavitimpfelelo ma le ka ntlawa wa 1 ma kongomisa eka vanhu, loko mavitimpfelelo ma le ka mitlawa yin’wana ma kongomisa eka swilo swo hambanahambana.Vuxokoxoko lebyi kamberiweke eka dyondzo leyi byi paluxile leswaku hi ku angarhela mavitimpfelelo ma humesa swihlawulekisi leswi landzelaka swa tinhlamuselo eka mitlawa ya maviti yo hambanahambana: [Muendli], [Mutokoti], [Nkongomelo], [Mutwisiwa ku vava], [Mbuyelo], [Xiendleko], [Nghingiriko], [Xiyimo], [Ximakiwa], [Xitirho], [Nghingiriko wo tlurisa], [Xiyimo xo tlurisa], [Ndhawu], [N’wavuswikoti], [[Muendli wo tlurisa], [Mutokoti wo tlurisa], [Nkongomelo wo tlurisa], na [Mutwisiwa ku vava wo tlurisa].

Thesis (DLitt)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
Full text to be digitised and attached to bibliographic record.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examines the morpho-syntactic and semantic properties, specifically tense and aspectual properties, of deficient verbs in Xitsonga. Various properties of deficient verbs have given rise to a distinction in verbal categories. Among these a range of features are explored in the study with the aim of establishing whether they playa significant role in relevant linguistic questions: The research on the deficient verb involves questions from three theoretical areas, namely Syntax, Morphology and Semantics. Deficient verbs in Xitsonga and related African languages are generally subcategorized for a clausal complement as illustrated in the following example: [a-hi-hamba [hi-rima laha]] [We-did-usually [plough here]] In the above sentence the deficient verb is hamba and it is followed by a compulsory clause as complement. The main properties of deficient verbs explored in this study relate to the following phenomena: • The deficient verb determines the selection of the mood in Inflection of the clausal complement. • The clausal complement of a deficient verb must have compulsory agreement of its subject with the subject of the matrix clause. • The deficient verbs lack the property which is characteristic of the autonomous verbs i.e. that they may be extended by derivative affixes such as the applicative or causative. • Deficient verbs have distinctive semantic features which are related to two inflectional categories, i.e. aspect and tense. This study concludes that the deficient verbs may express several meanings, including meanings related to duration, habitual, frequentative, progressive, obligative, manner, continuative, concessive and completive.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die sintaktiese en semantiese, in die besonder die tydvorm- en aspek-eienskappe van hulpwerkwoorde in Xitsonga. 'n Verskeidenheid kenmerke van hulpwerkwoorde het daartoe aanleiding gegee dat 'n onderskeid getref word ten opsigte van werkwoordkategorieë. Hieronder word 'n verskeidenheid kenmerke ondersoek ten einde vas te stelof dit 'n beduidende rol speel in relevante linguistiese vrae. Die navorsing van hierdie studie behels vrae vanuit drie teoretiese velde, naamlik die morfologie, sintaksis, en semantiek. Hulpwerkwoorde in Xitsonga en verwante Afrikatale word gesubkategoriseer vir 'n sinskomplement, soos geïllustreer in die volgende voorbeeld: [A-hi-hamba [hi-rima laha]] [Ons het gewoonlik [ons ploeg hier]], d.i. ons het gewoonlik hier geploeg In die bogenoemde sin is hamba die hulpwerkwoord en dit word gevolg deur 'n verpligte sinskomplement. Die sentrale kenmerke van hulpwerkwoorde wat in hierdie studie ondersoek word hou verband met die volgende verskynsels: • Die hulpwerkwoord bepaal die seleksie van modus in die Infleksie van die sinskomplement. • Die sinskomplement van 'n hulpwerkwoord moet verpligte kongruensie toon van die subjek daarvan met die subjek van die matriksin. • Die hulpwerkwoord kort die eienskap wat kenmerkend is van outonome werkwoorde, naamlik, dat hulle afleidingsuffikse kan neem, soos die applikatief -el- en die kousatief -is. • Hulpwerkwoorde het onderskeidende semantiese kenmerke wat verband hou met twee infleksie kategorieë, nl. aspek en tydvorm. Die studie kon tot die gevolgtrekking dat hulpwerkwoorde 'n verskeidenheid betekennis kan uitdruk, insluitende betekenisse wat verband hou met tydsduur, habitueel, frekwentatief, progressief, verpligting, wyse, voortdurendheid, toegewing en kompletief.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The break and bend verbs in Xitsonga forms part of the larger verb class of verbs of change of state. Such verbs show two events, i.e. a process and a transition. These verbs have been investigated in Xitsonga with regard to the following properties: the syntactic categories within which they may appear, the levels of representation within lexical semantics and their semantic features. The break verbs in Xitsonga appear in three syntactic categories, i.e. transitive verbs, verbal roots with transitive and intransitive suffixes and ideophones, which may appear as derived verbs with transitive and intransitive suffixes. The bend verbs appear only as transitive or intransitive verbs, but they may have a shadow argument with the phrase [hi NP] which gives rise to instrument-subject alternation. Most of the bend verbs may also appear in structures with inalienable possession. The break verbs have five semantic features: break, split and crack, smash and crush, demolish, tear. The bend verbs have six semantic features: bend, bend or fold, bend or twist, be crooked, lean over, kneel. The break verbs, which may also appear, as ideophones are clear examples of ergative verbs in Xitsonga. Such verbs denote a change of state and they occur as both transitive and intransitive verbs.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die breek- en buigwerkwoorde in Xitsonga vorm deel van die groter klas van werkwoorde, bekend as verandering-van-toestand ('change-of-state') werkwoorde. Hierdie soort werkwoorde vertoon twee tipes gebeure ('events'), naamlik proses en oorgang ('transition'). Hierdie werkwoorde word vir Xitsonga ondersoek met betrekking tot die volgende eienskappe: die sintaktiese kategorieë waarin hulle mag verskyn, die vlakke van representasie in die leksikale semantiek, en die semantiese kenmerke van hierdie werkwoorde. Breekwerkwoorde in Xitsonga verskyn in drie sintaktiese kategorieë, naamlik transitiewe werkwoorde, werkwoordstamme met transitiewe en intransitiewe suffikse, en ideofone, wat as afgeleide werkwoorde met transitiewe en intransitiewe suffikse mag verskyn. Die buigwerkwoorde mag slegs as transitiewe of intransitiewe werkwoorde verskyn, maar hulle mag 'n skadu-argument neem met die frase [hi NP], wat die instrument-subjek alternasie kan realiseer. Die meeste buigwerkwoorde kan ook in strukture verskyn wat onvervreembare besit illustreer. Die breekwerkwoorde het vyf semantiese kenmerke: breek, kloof, kraak, slaan en druk, verwoes en skeur. Die buigwerkwoorde het ses semantiese kenmerke: buig, vou, draai, gebuig wees, oorleen en kniel. Die breekwerkwoorde, kan ook as ergatiewe werkwoorde verskyn in Xitsonga. Sulke werkwoorde dui verandering-van-toestand aan, en hulle mag as beide transitiewe en intransitiewe werkwoorde verskyn.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study explores selected motion verbs in Xitsonga within the framework of lexical sementics postulated by Pustejovsky (1995). This study examines the polysemy of the respective selected motion verbs in sentences with various noun subject types in Xitsonga. The motion verbs examined are: -~ (go), -@_ (come), -famba (go away), -baleka (run away), -kasa (crawl), -khandziya (climb up) and -gonya (ascend). Syntactically, these verbs occur in example sentences as evidenced below: The subject NP is [human] Sipho u ya ekaya hi milenge. Sipho is going home on foot. The subject NP is [inanimate] Tafuia ri tile exikolweni hi movha. The table is delivered at school by car. The subject NP is [weather noun] : Mpfula yi fambile etikweni. The rain has stopped in the country. Nkwangulatilo wu khandziya entshaveni. Rainbow climbs up to the mountain. Moya wo kasa. The wind is blowing slowly. The subject NP is [concrete noun]: Vuswa byi fambile emasin'wini. Food is carried to the field. Mugayo wu gonyile emakete. Maize meal is expensive in the market. The subject NP is [abstract noun] : Rivengo ri fambile eka vanhu. Hatred has ended from people. The subject NP is [natural phenomenon] Dyambu ri balekile emapapeni. The sun is very hot in the sky. The study explores the selected motion verbs and establishes the specific properties of selection restrictions, assignment of arguments as well as the event structure or sentences with the motion verbs. Lastly, the lexical conceptual paradigm is examined in order to determine the different senses or meanings of the motion verbs.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek geselekteerde bewegingswerkwoorde in Xitstonga binne die raamwerk van die leksikale semantiek ontwikkel deur Pustejovsky (1995). Die studie ondersoek die polisemie van die onderskeie bewegingswerkwoorde in sinne met verskillende onderwerp tipes in Xitsonga. Die bewegingswerkswoorde wat ondersoek word is: -Y.ê_ (gaan), -ta (kom), -famba (weggaan), -baleka (hardloop), -kasa (kruip), -khandziya (klim) and -gonya (daai) .. Hierdie werkwoorde verskyn sintakties in voorbeelde soos hier onder geillustreer: Die subjek NP is [mens] Sipho u ya ekaya hi milenge. Sipho gaan huis toe per voet. Die subjek NP is [nie-lewend] Tafuia ri tile exikolweni hi movha. Die tafel gaan na die skool per motor, d.i. die tafel word per motor afgelewer by die skool. Die subjek NP is [weer naamwoord]: Mpfula yi fambile etikweni. Die reën het weggegaan (gestop) in die land Nkwangulatilo wu khandziya entshaveni. Die reënboog klim teen die berg op. Moya wo kasa. Die wind kruip, d.i. waai stadig Die subjek NP is [konkrete naamwoord]: Vuswa byi fambile emasin'wini. Kos het gegaan (is geneem) na die land Mugayo wu gonyile emakete. Mieliemeel het gestyg in die mark Die subjek NP is [abstrakte naamwoord]:Rivengo ri fambile eka vanhu. Haat het geëindig by mense Die subjek NP is [natural phenomenon] Dyambu ri balekile emapapeni. Die son het weggehardloop uit die lug, d.i. dit is baie warm. Die studie ondersoek die geselekteerde bewegingswerkwoorde en stel vas wat die spesifieke eienskappe is van seleksiebeperkings, toekenning van argumente en die gebeurtenis struktuur van sinne met die bewegingswerkwoorde. Laastens word die leksikale konseptueie paradigma ondersoek ten einde die verskillende betekenisonderskeidings van die bewegingswerkwoorde vas te stel.

Thesis ( M.A. (African Languages)) --University of Limpopo, 2013.
This study examines the impact of Zero equivalence when translating Xitsonga to English and vice versa. Translation is essential in everyday communication, therefore it is important to choose the accurate equivalent variant during the process if not so misunderstanding occurs especially where the target language has nil elements for a particular concept. In this study semi-structured interview was conducted and it is discovered that in place of zero equivalent variants different strategies were provided by different respondents to overcome the deficiency which target languages experience. Looking for sameness of meaning during communications exposes insufficiency of words, phrases and concepts in translating languages with different culture.

Thesis (M. A. (African Languages)) --University of Limpopo, 2001
This study explores the lexical semantic representation of break verbs in Xitsonga. Chapter One is the introduction of this study. It describes the statement of the problem. The main aim of this study is described which m bnef is to investigate the form, struc e and interpretation of break verbs in Xitsonga. The significance of this study, which is to highlight the semantic value of break verbs in Xitsonga is discussed. The methodology, lite rature review as well as the theta - theory and its properties have been examined. Chapter Two explores the predicate argument structure. The difference between two lexical representations, which are lexical-syntactic and lexical­ semantic representations was investigated. A brief definition of break verbs as well as the six categories of the verbs of change of state have also been discussed. This chapter also analyses the lexical features of break verbs. Various sub - classes of external arguments and of internal argument are observed. Chapter Three presents the lexical - semantic representation of break verbs where focus is on argument structure, event structure, qualia structure and lexical inheritance structure. Chapter Four deals with the syntactic alternation and selection restriction of break verbs. The difference between transitive and intransitive alterna tions was also highlighted. This chapter also explores some of the different types of verbal alternations, such as ' instrument subject alternation', ' locative alternation' and the ' with/ against alternation' . Chapter Five gives the main conclusion of this study.

Thesis (M. A. (Translation Studies and Linguistics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019
The aim of this study is to find out whether or not there are locative prepositions in Xitsonga. If so, to determine if they are true prepositions, their functions and the difference between locative prepositions and locatives. The locative case theory is adopted. Data are collected using telephone interviews from a sample of 10 Xitsonga grade 12 language teachers in Mopani district, Limpopo, South Africa. This study finds that there is one locative preposition namely, eka in Xitsonga. This preposition has three forms e-, eka and (-) ka which is also a locative preposition. These forms appear with proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns and collective nouns. The forms e- and ka also appear with locatives derived from noun classes 16 and 18, whereby the form e- is omitted when the existential morpheme le (there) is present in a sentence. The form e- also appears with locatives derived in noun class 17. The Xitsonga locative preposition is one of its kind because it has morphemes that contribute in the formation of locatives indicating position. It is recommended that studies of a similar kind should be done to find out more information about prepositions, more especially locative prepositions.