Academic literature on the topic 'Zimbabwe – Social conditions – 1995-2005'

Historically, health care in Zimbabwe was provided primarily to cater to colonial administrators and the expatriate, with separate care or second-provision made for Africans. There was no need for legislation to guarantee its provision to the settler community. To address the inequities in health that had existed prior to 1980, at independence, Zimbabwe adopted the concept of Equity in Health and Primary Health Care. Initially, this resulted in the narrowing of the gap between health provision in rural areas and urban areas. Over the years, however, there have been clear indications of growing inequities in health provision and health care as a result of mainly Economic Structural Adjustment Policies (ESAP), 1991–1995, and health policy changes. Infant and child mortality have been worsened by the impact of HIV/AIDS and reduced access to affordable essential health care. For example, life expectancy at birth was 56 in the 1980s, increased to 60 in 1990 and is now about 43. Morbidity (diseases) and mortality (death rates) trends in Zimbabwe show that the population is still affected by the traditional preventable diseases and conditions that include nutritional deficiencies, communicable diseases, pregnancy and childbirth conditions and the conditions of the new born. The deterioration of the Zimbabwean health services sector has also partially been due to increasing shortages of qualified personnel. The public sector has been operating with only 19 per cent staff since 2000. Many qualified and competent health workers left the country because of the unfavourable political environment. The health system in Zimbabwe has been operating under a legal and policy framework that in essence does not recognize the right to health. Neither the pre-independence constitution nor the Lancaster House constitution, which is the current Constitution of Zimbabwe, made specific provisions for the right to health. Progress made in the 1980s characterized by adequate financing of the health system and decentralized health management and equity of health services between urban and rural areas, which saw dramatic increases in child survival rates and life expectancy, was, unfortunately, not consolidated. As of 2000 per capita health financing stood at USD 8.55 as compared to USD 23.6, which had been recommended by the Commission of Review into the Health Sector in 1997. At the beginning of 2008 it had been dramatically further eroded and stood at only USD 0.19 leading to the collapse of the health system. Similarly, education in Zimbabwe, in addition to the changes it has undergone during the different periods since attainment of independence, also went through many phases during the colonial period. From 1962 up until 1980, the Rhodesia Front government catered more for the European child. Luckily, some mission schools that had been established earlier kept on expanding taking in African children who could proceed with secondary education (high school education). Inequity in education existed when the ZANU-PF government came into power in 1980. It took aggressive and positive steps to redress the inequalities that existed in the past. Unfortunately, the government did not come up with an education policy or philosophy in spite of massive expansion and investment. The government had cut its expenditure on education because of economic and political instability. This has happened particularly in rural areas, where teachers have left the teaching profession.

Objective. To assess links between the social variables and longer-term El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) related weather conditions as they relate to the week-to-week changes in dengue incidence at a regional level. Materials and methods. We collected data from 10 municipalities of the Olmeca region in México, over a 10 year period (January 1995 to December 2005). Negative binomial models with distributed lags were adjusted to look for associations between changes in the weekly incidence rate of dengue fever and climate variability. Results. Our results show that it takes approximately six weeks for sea surface temperatures (SST -34) to affect dengue incidence adjusted by weather and social variables. Conclusion. Such models could be used as early as two months in advance to provide information to decision makers about potential epidemics. Elucidating the effect of climatic variability and social variables, could assist in the development of accurate early warning systems for epidemics like dengue, Chikungunya and Zika.

IntroductionConsequences of alcohol dependence may be complex, and difficult for treatment, thus complex diagnostic procedures are needed.AimTo assess the prevalence of silent brain strokes and cortical cerebral atrophy amongst male inpatient alcoholics.MethodologyWe analyzed 86 file records of males treated from 01 January 2005 to 31 December 2009 year on Tuzla Psychiatry Department, who had dismissed diagnosis Alcohol dependency (F 10.2) according ICD-10, with computerized tomography (CT) of brain, related to age, war engagement, brain trauma, employment, smoking, psychological findings and presence of silent stroke and cortical brain atrophy according CT diagnosis.ResultsThe mean age of observed patients was 50.1 ± 6.6 years. Amongst them (70.9%) were active soldiers in Bosnia-Herzegovina Army during 1992–1995 war. There were 71 (72.6%) with atrophy of brain cortex, 27 (31.4%) had ischemic silent stroke. In the sample, 61 (70.9%) of inpatients met criteria for PTSD according ICD-10, 53 (61.6%) had cognitive disturbances, 29 (33.7%) had psychotic symptoms, 50 (58.1%) of them had clinically manifested depression, 47 (54.7%) had difficulties in social contacts, 23 (26.7%) had somatic disorders. Age of inpatients was in positive correlation with duration of work, presence of silent ischemic stroke and brain cortex atrophy. Presence of PTSD was in positive correlation with involvement in the combatants, with cognitive disturbances, with depressiveness and somatic complains. Atrophy of brain cortex positively correlated with silent stroke and glucose blood level.ConclusionBrain cortical atrophy and silent brain stroke were frequent CT findings amongst male alcohol dependants clinically treated in Psychiatry department.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether the low birth weight (LBW) paradox exists in Brazil. METHODS: LBW and cesarean section rates between 1995 and 2007 were estimated based on data from SINASC (Brazilian Live Births Database). Infant mortality rates (IMRs) were obtained using an indirect method that correct for underreporting. Schooling information was obtained from census data. Trends in LBW rate were assessed using joinpoint regression models. The correlations between LBW rate and other indicators were graphically assessed by lowess regression and tested using Spearman's rank correlation. RESULTS: In Brazil, LBW rate trends were non-linear and non-significant: the rate dropped from 7.9% in 1995 to 7.7% in 2000, then increased to 8.2% in 2003 and remained nearly steady thereafter at 8.2% in 2007. However, trends varied among Brazilian regions: there were significant increases in the North from 1999 to 2003 (2.7% per year), and in the South (1.0% per year) and Central-West regions (0.6% per year) from 1995 to 2007. For the entire period studied, higher LBW and lower IMRs were seen in more developed compared to less developed regions. In Brazilian States, in 2005, the higher the IMR rate, the lower the LBW rate (p=0.009); the lower the low schooling rate, the lower the LBW rate (p=0.007); the higher the number of neonatal intensive care beds per 1,000 live births, the higher the LBW rate (p=0.036). CONCLUSIONS: The low birth weight paradox was seen in Brazil. LBW rate is increasing in some Brazilian regions. Regional differences in LBW rate seem to be more associated to availability of perinatal care services than underlying social conditions.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between corporate venture capital (CVC) investment and the level of knowledge transferred from start-ups to corporate investors. It also delineates the conditions under which CVC investment facilitates the knowledge transfer. Design/methodology/approach – A longitudinal design is used to examine annual snapshots of CVC investment and patent citing activities for the period from 1995 to 2005. This paper uses a negative binomial Poisson regression model to test proposed research hypotheses. Findings – The authors found that that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between the number of CVC investments and the level of knowledge transferred from the start-up. The results of this study also found that knowledge diversity of the investing firm moderates the inverted U-shaped relationship. Originality/value – This research contributes to the search literature by conceptualizing CVC investment as a distant search process for sourcing external knowledge from start-ups. By arguing theoretically and demonstrating empirically the effects of tie strength of CVC structure and technological knowledge diversity on organizational knowledge transfer, this current study extends the previous understanding and applicability of social relations and technological diversity to understand CVC activity.

Aims: To examine the prevalence of and trends in older adults’ (60–79 years) alcohol use in Norway between 1985 and 2019. Methods: Data stem from two repeated cross-sectional surveys in the Norwegian population: Statistics Norway’s Health and Living Conditions Surveys from 1985 ( N = 7799), 1995 ( N = 3518) and 2005 ( N = 6487), and the Norwegian Institute of Public Health’s (NIPH) annual surveys on alcohol, tobacco and drug use from 2012/2013 ( N = 4047), 2014/2015 ( N = 4378), 2016/2017 ( N = 4264) and 2018/2019 ( N = 4330). The following measures were used to examine trends in alcohol use among women and men aged 60 and older: drinking status, drinking frequency, number of drinks per occasion, and frequency of heavy episodic drinking (HED). Results: Between 1985 and 2019, there has been a substantial increase in the proportions of older adults in Norway who drink alcohol and who drink relatively often. The increase was particularly marked between 1985 and 2012/2013, and for elderly women. However, the majority of older adults drink small amounts of alcohol on typical drinking occasions, illustrating that the increased frequency of drinking is not accompanied by a corresponding increase in risky drinking. Conclusions: There has been a marked increase in alcohol use among older adults the past 30 years, particularly among older women, suggesting that the age and gender gap traditionally found in alcohol use in Norway is diminishing. Due to the lower alcohol tolerance among elderly, monitoring the changing trends in alcohol use in this group, as well as the possible consequences of these changes, is important.

<p>Building circularly means building with future reuse in mind. Since Pearce and Turner (1995) put forward their ideas on the circular economy, this approach has gained prominence in other disciplines, such as architecture. (McDonough y Braungart, 2005). However, until very recent times architecture has been "linear" if we understand this as the opposite of the aim of reuse: the initial purpose was disconnected from the final one. Thus, to have elements of analysis and comparison, in this text we will approach the way of building in Spain in the 20th century. We will focus on the case of railway social housing, which had an abundant production (around 20,000 dwellings) in the period 1939-1989, within the framework of the existing housing legislation at that time in which there was no purpose of reuse, as the context and needs were different. However, these are dwellings that are still in use where the principles of circular architecture are applied, in this case to improve and adapt to regulations regarding energy saving with the intention of making this continuity of use more sustainable.</p><p>The article is based on the analysis of the thermal envelope carried out based on the projects available, as well as the study and application of the regulations on thermal insulation in the period under study, which specifically did not exist until the 1979 basic standard on thermal conditions (NBE-CT-79). The aim is to simulate, after the study carried out and after the recent update of the basic document on energy saving, (CTE DB-HE 2019) what renovation actions are necessary in these dwellings to ensure compliance with the new and rigorous standards set with the aim of reconciling these dwellings, which are still in use and were built under criteria of minimum cost, with the lowest energy consumption and therefore with greater energy efficiency and environmental sustainability.</p>

This work goes along the lines of the author’s research (1995-2016) on professional careers and models bearing causes and effects regarding sustained interaction (core, psychosocial, institutional and structural factors). The aim of this paper was analyze, through the doctors’ social representations, the levels of satisfaction evidenced by those who have advanced professionally to the highest positions within the scientific (or other) system. The hypothesis states that the relation is not linear but inverse. Satisfaction would not increase according to the Professional Status. We consider here, on the one hand, the insufficient Professionalization and the increasing demands from the market; and on the other, the impact structural limits have on the micro level. The methodology used was quanti-qualitative (semi-structured questionnaires, interviews, and hierarchical evocations). The population consisted of doctors (2005-2012) from the National University of Cuyo, in Argentina and the Cnam (France) of different courses of study. The results confirm the hypothesis. As regards what was observed among those who advanced professionally, the increase on the growing market demands along with the lack of institutionalized means in order to reach goals, result in lower satisfaction. This is interpreted from the theory of the author, which involves 3 levels (macro-meso-micro-macro) (Aparicio, 2015 a, b). We also consider the theories of anomie and of the expectancy of valence (Feather - Davenport). Findings along this line were also seen in studies with scientists (Aparicio, 2014). The results propose a revision in the prevailing working conditions and police: satisfaction acts on subsystems and consolidates them.

This work goes along the lines of the author’s research (1995-2016) on professional careers and models bearing causes and effects regarding sustained interaction (core, psychosocial, institutional and structural factors). The aim of this paper was analyze, through the doctors’ social representations, the levels of satisfaction evidenced by those who have advanced professionally to the highest positions within the scientific (or other) system. The hypothesis states that the relation is not linear but inverse. Satisfaction would not increase according to the Professional Status. We consider here, on the one hand, the insufficient Professionalization and the increasing demands from the market; and on the other, the impact structural limits have on the micro level. The methodology used was quanti-qualitative (semi-structured questionnaires, interviews, and hierarchical evocations). The population consisted of doctors (2005-2012) from the National University of Cuyo, in Argentina and the Cnam (France) of different courses of study. The results confirm the hypothesis. As regards what was observed among those who advanced professionally, the increase on the growing market demands along with the lack of institutionalized means in order to reach goals, result in lower satisfaction. This is interpreted from the theory of the author, which involves 3 levels (macro-meso-micro-macro) (Aparicio, 2015 a, b). We also consider the theories of anomie and of the expectancy of valence (Feather - Davenport). Findings along this line were also seen in studies with scientists (Aparicio, 2014). The results propose a revision in the prevailing working conditions and police: satisfaction acts on subsystems and consolidates them.

The article discusses the extent of hidden employment in Lithuania and its dynamics tendencies, different methodologies used for the assessment of this phenomenon are reviewed and the problems this assessment faces are discussed. Because the estimation of hidden employment extent is very complicated and multiple problem the article is based on various data sources and on the methodology of statistical researches. The article widely presents the results of survey of Statistics Lithuania and it's acummulated experience, various methodological problems of hidden employment estimation are disscused. Employed in the unofficial labour market population dynamics tendencies are estimated based on prepared methodology of calculation by the Institute of Labour and Social Research scientists). According to calculations made by authors, hidden employment in Lithuania kept growing fast and reached the maximum value of 380 thousand till 1994. Later (in 1995–2001) it declined substantially to 230 thousand. 2002–2004 were the year of temporal stabilization (with a number of 210 thousand illegally employed), after which a period of sudden fall took place (down to 120 thousand in 2008). Despite this, the favorable conditions for hidden employment growth were formed in 2009, while in the threat of the economic crisis the country experienced an especially deep recession. Increased taxes and unemployment, made the favorable conditions for shadow business. Santrauka Straipsniu siekiama įvertinti neoficialaus užimtumo apimtį ir jo dinamikos tendencijas bei apžvelgti skirtingas šio reiškinio skaičiavimų metodikas. Kadangi neoficialaus užimtumo (nelegalaus darbo) apimties įvertinimas itin sudėtinga ir įvairialypė problema, analizuojant situaciją naudotasi įvairiais duomenų šaltiniais: skirtingų institucijų apklausų duomenimis, specialių skaičiavimų rezultatais. Straipsnyje plačiai naudojami Statistikos departamento prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės (toliau – Statistikos departamento) atlikto tyrimo rezultatai ir sukaupta patirtis, aptariamos įvairios metodinės neoficialaus užimtumo įvertinimo problemos. Dirbančiųjų neoficialioje darbo rinkoje dinamikos tendencijos įvertinamos remiantis Darbo ir socialinių tyrimų instituto mokslininkų parengta skaičiavimo metodika, prie kurios kūrimo prisidėjo straipsnio autoriai. Be to, siekiant geriau ištirti nagrinėjamą problemą naudojamasi Darbo ir socialinių tyrimų instituto atlikto specialaus tyrimo (“Nelegalaus darbo, teisės aktų, reglamentuojančių darbo santykius, pažeidimų, darbdavių atstovų grasinimų ar kitokio psichologinio pobūdžio įtakos darbuotojų darbo rezultatams bei saugai ir sveikatai 2004–2005 m.“) rezultatais. Kaip parodė autorių skaičiavimai, iki 1994 m. neoficialusis užimtumas Lietuvoje augo itin sparčiai ir pasiekė maksimalią 380 tūkst. reikšmę, o 1995–2001 m. labai sumažėjo (iki 230 tūkst.). 2002–2004 m. buvo laikinas stabilizacijos laikotarpis (dirbančiųjų neoficialioje darbo rinkoje buvo 210 tūkst.), po kurio šis rodiklis sparčiai mažėjo (iki 120 tūkst. 2008 m.). Nepaisant to, palankios neoficialaus užimtumo augimo sąlygos susiformavo 2009 m., kai grėsmingos ekonominės krizės metu šalyje ypač stipriai pasireiškė ūkio nuosmukis, išaugus mokesčiams ir nedarbui tiesiog suklestėjo šešėlinis verslas. Būtina pabrėžti ir tai, kad įvairūs neoficialaus užimtumo apimties vertinimai stipriai skiriasi. Autorių skaičiavimais, kurių pagrindas yra “Sodros“ duomenys, neoficialaus užimtumo mastas 2003 m. siekė apie 200 tūkst. užimtųjų, o tų metų neapskaitomos ekonomikos tyrimo duomenimis, jis siekė apie 100 tūkst. Apibendrinant skirtingus duomenų šaltinius, galima pateikti nelegalaus darbo apimties (dirbančiųjų neoficialioje darbo rinkoje skaičiaus) tikėtinas svyravimo ribas. 2003 m. šis rodiklis galėjo svyruoti nuo 100 iki 200 tūkst. Viršutinė šio intervalo riba remiasi autorių atliktais skaičiavimais. Šiuos skirtumus galima aiškinti tiek apytikriu vertinimų pobūdžiu, tiek metodiniais skaičiavimų skirtumais. Deja, nėra galimybės palyginti naujesnių rodiklių, nes neapskaitomos ekonomikos tyrimas šalyje atliekamas maždaug kas 10 metų.