Academic literature on the topic 'Zoology - Research'

At least since the time of Darwin, scientists have been using systematic observational techniques in the conduct of research. During the 1920s and 1930s, in psychology and zoology there was widespread use of the systematic recording of quantitative analysis of observed behavioral data. In both professions, this enthusiasm gradually gave way to an emphasis on controlled experiments. In psychology, the incidence of nonparticipant observational research dwindled to almost zero. In zoology, it became somewhat attenuated, but was preserved as a part of the ethological tradition (Hutt and Hutt, 1970).

The construction of large-scale excavation and track tools brings vast waste slag which not only aggravates land erosion, but also causes a series of zoology problem. This article expands measures of zoology reparative project which provides useful signification for waste slag harness of construction project in arid region through analyses to waste slag status.

Recognizing natural history collections as dynamic scientific tools that enable unique forms of comparative analysis, theorizing, and questioning offers a new perspective on the history of the life sciences in the twentieth century that emphasizes the important role that collections played in the transformation of biology. To build an understanding of “collections-based research,” this paper focuses on the career of Alden Holmes Miller, who led the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California, Berkeley through significant institutional, disciplinary, and technological changes (1940–1965). This paper examines how Miller’s efforts as researcher, administrator, and teacher enabled him to foster collections-based research. Miller’s own research into speciation and reproductive physiology are examples of collectionsbased work, incorporating concepts, theories, practices, and tools from the laboratory, museum, and field.

DEVELOPMENT WEB BASED TEACHING MATERIALS ON VERTEBRATE CONCEPT AbstractThe study aimed to determine the profile of online media used in project web-based teaching materials in the Vertebrate Zoology course. This research was conducted on Biology Education program in the odd semester of academic year 2015/2016. The subject of this research is the students of Biology education program which in the odd semester take the Vertebrata Zoology courses totaling 25 people. The method used in the research is development with research design which consists of preliminary, development, and evaluation stage. Instrument in this research is in the form of evaluation material sheet by evaluator. The results showed that the average value given by the evaluator was 83, which entered into good category. Teaching materials developed by students vary widely. The teaching materials consist of wordpress (28%), wix (24%), webnode (16%), prezi (16%), other web and UIN Website respectively by 8%. This shows that students have been able to develop web-based teaching materials by utilizing the development of ICT. AbstrakPenelitian bertujuan untuk mendapatkan gambaran mengenai penggunaan media online dalam proyek pembuatan bahan ajar berbasis web pada matakuliah Zoology Vertebrata. Penelitian ini dilakukan pada program studi Pendidikan Biologi pada semester ganjil tahun ajaran 2015/2016. Subjek penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa program studi pendidikan Biologi yang pada semester ganjil mengambil mata kuliah Zoologi Vertebrata berjumlah 25 orang. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian adalah metode pengembangan dengan design penelitian terdiri dari tahap pendahuluan, pengembangan, dan evaluasi. Instrumen dalam penelitian ini berupa lembar penilaian bahan ajar oleh evaluator. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan nilai rata-rata yang diberikan oleh evaluator mendapatkan nilai 83 yang masuk kedalam kategori baik. Bahan ajar yang dikembangkan oleh mahasiswa sangat bervariasi. Bahan ajar tersebut terdiri dari wordpress (28%), wix (24%), webnode (16%), prezi (16%), web lainnya dan Website UIN masing masing sebesar 8%. Hal ini menunjukkan mahasiswa sudah mampu mengembangkan bahan ajar berbasis web dengan memanfaatkan perkembangan TIK.

In recent years, developments in the field of molecular biology and genetics have led to the increase in biological information stored in databases. The same increase in the volume of information occurred in the field of zoology, but the development of databases was not addressed in this area. We prepared a relational database and its diagram in the Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS) database program. Our results represent experience with construction of a new database design for the zoology field with a focus on research of epigeic groups. The structure of the database will help with meta-analyzes with the objective to identify zoological and ecological relationships and responses to anthropic intervention.

We provide a brief overview of the history of the journal Contributions to Zoology and analyse the papers published in the last 27 years by topic. Founded in 1848 as ‘Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde’, 160 years and 76 volumes later it is one of the oldest zoological journals that is still regularly printed. Over the last decades most papers dealt with invertebrates (60%), followed by vertebrates (23%), insects (10%) and non-taxonomic papers. Contributions to Zoology has seen a change from a largely alpha taxonomic journal to one that is truly general in scope. Systematic Biology and Comparative Morphology of both extant and extinct taxa nowadays make up about half of the papers published. Ethology as a research subject has been gradually phased out, and judged by the number of papers published, Conservation Biology has seen its coming of age of as a mainstream biological science. With contributors from 36 countries, of which 40% from outside Europe, Contributions to Zoology is a truly international journal, for research and researchers from various parts of the world.

Abstract Knowledge of the scientific study of the sea in the early twentieth century is essential to understand the process through which marine biology was institutionalised in Portugal. The first national biological stations were set up during the First Republic: the Estação de Zoologia Marítima da Foz in Porto, and the Aquário Vasco da Gama in Lisbon. This paper is a case study on the Estação da Foz, which played an important role by assisting the Zoology Institute at the Universidade do Porto in achieving its strategic objectives, and provides an understanding of the institutionalisation process for marine biology within a university context: its connection with teaching, research, the economy, and society.

In this study Gracilaria edilis, sargassam and Padina gymnospora from Raameshwaram sea, Tamil Nadu were collected, identified and tested against various pathogenic bacteria. In Antibacterial assay Acetone shows the maximum number of activity against the Salmonella typi (32mm) length of inhibtions occurred andAcetone shows the minimum activity against Klebsiella pneumonia (18mm) of the inhibition level. Under the Antifungal assay Acetone shows the maximum activity against the penicillium.sp, (10mm) of the inhibition. Acetone shows the moderate activity against the Aspergillus niger (5mm) of inhibition and the minimumactivity in candida sp,. (8mm) of inhibition zone level.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-06-28Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:39:53Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 bertolucci_mpb_me_botib.pdf: 191496 bytes, checksum: 4a7e9b076a1b248c3fae26a47879b911 (MD5)
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Os diferentes tipos de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato podem ser um importante fator na determinação da riqueza, abundância e distribuição das comunidades bentônicas. Neste sentido, no presente trabalhos fizemos um experimento em um riacho do Parque Estadual Intervales, Estado de São Paulo, com o objetivo de responder as seguintes questões: 1) a abundância, riqueza e composição da fauna de macroinvertebrados aquáticos são afetadas pelo tipo de mesohabitat (corredeira e remanso)? 2) a abundância, riqueza e composição da fauna são afetadas por substratos com diferentes complexidades fractais? 3) A fauna é afetada pela interação entre o tipo de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato? Para responder esses questionamentos, coletamos dados experimentais em um riacho de Mata Atlântica do Sudeste do Brasil. Foram coletados 2.223 indivíduos. O primeiro eixo da DCA explicou 48,5% da variabilidade e separou a fauna coletada em remanso daquela coletada em corredeira. O segundo eixo explicou 15,9% e não pôde ser interpretado. A DCA não mostrou nenhum padrão que pudesse ser explicado pelas diferentes dimensões fractais. A maior abundância dos macroinvertebrados aquáticos foi observada em corredeiras. O tipo de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato não afetaram a riqueza padronizada. Por outro lado, o tipo de mesohabitat afetou significativamente a composição faunística, DCA I
The richness, abundance and distribution of benthic communities may be affected by the different types of mesohabitat and by substrate complexity. In this sense, in the present work, we made a experiment in a stream located in the Intervales State Park, São Paulo State, with the aim to answer the following questions: 1) are abundance, richness and the faunal composition of aquatic macroinvertebrates affected by the type of mesohabitat (riffle and pool)? 2) Are abundance, richness and the faunal composition affected by the substrates with different fractal complexity? 3) Does the interaction between mesohabitat type and substrate complexity affect the fauna? To answer these questions, we collected experimental data in an Atlantic Rainforest stream in the Southeastern of Brazil. We collected 2.223 individuals. The first axis of DCA explained 48.5% of the variability and segregated the fauna of riffle from that of pool. The second axis explained 15,9% and could not be interpreted. The DCA analyses did not show any pattern that could be explained by the different fractal dimensions. The greatest aquatic macroinvertebrate abundance was observed in riffles. The mesohabitat type and the substrates complexity did not affect the standardized richness. On the other hand, the mesohabitat type affected significantly the faunal composition, DCA I

Orientador: Ricardo Cardoso Benine
Banca: Virginia Sanches Uieda
Banca: Alaide Aparecida Fonseca Gessner
Resumo: Os diferentes tipos de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato podem ser um importante fator na determinação da riqueza, abundância e distribuição das comunidades bentônicas. Neste sentido, no presente trabalhos fizemos um experimento em um riacho do Parque Estadual Intervales, Estado de São Paulo, com o objetivo de responder as seguintes questões: 1) a abundância, riqueza e composição da fauna de macroinvertebrados aquáticos são afetadas pelo tipo de mesohabitat (corredeira e remanso)? 2) a abundância, riqueza e composição da fauna são afetadas por substratos com diferentes complexidades fractais? 3) A fauna é afetada pela interação entre o tipo de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato? Para responder esses questionamentos, coletamos dados experimentais em um riacho de Mata Atlântica do Sudeste do Brasil. Foram coletados 2.223 indivíduos. O primeiro eixo da DCA explicou 48,5% da variabilidade e separou a fauna coletada em remanso daquela coletada em corredeira. O segundo eixo explicou 15,9% e não pôde ser interpretado. A DCA não mostrou nenhum padrão que pudesse ser explicado pelas diferentes dimensões fractais. A maior abundância dos macroinvertebrados aquáticos foi observada em corredeiras. O tipo de mesohabitat e a complexidade do substrato não afetaram a riqueza padronizada. Por outro lado, o tipo de mesohabitat afetou significativamente a composição faunística, DCA I
Abstract: The richness, abundance and distribution of benthic communities may be affected by the different types of mesohabitat and by substrate complexity. In this sense, in the present work, we made a experiment in a stream located in the Intervales State Park, São Paulo State, with the aim to answer the following questions: 1) are abundance, richness and the faunal composition of aquatic macroinvertebrates affected by the type of mesohabitat (riffle and pool)? 2) Are abundance, richness and the faunal composition affected by the substrates with different fractal complexity? 3) Does the interaction between mesohabitat type and substrate complexity affect the fauna? To answer these questions, we collected experimental data in an Atlantic Rainforest stream in the Southeastern of Brazil. We collected 2.223 individuals. The first axis of DCA explained 48.5% of the variability and segregated the fauna of riffle from that of pool. The second axis explained 15,9% and could not be interpreted. The DCA analyses did not show any pattern that could be explained by the different fractal dimensions. The greatest aquatic macroinvertebrate abundance was observed in riffles. The mesohabitat type and the substrates complexity did not affect the standardized richness. On the other hand, the mesohabitat type affected significantly the faunal composition, DCA I
Mestre

This study focuses on several aspects of the life history of R. globiceps, and includes a study of juvenile habitat, a hatch date analysis, methods to increase precision of age estimates obtained from reading otoliths and a per-recruit assessment.

The main goal of this study was to determine the thermal ecology of the small tree lizard Urosaurus ornatus in a Chihuahuan Desert landscape. The study site was located at Indio Mountains Research Station (IMRS), Hudspeth County, Texas. We obtained body temperature (Tb) data on 385 lizards collected from April 2007 to June 2014 during the active period using a cloacal thermometer. Additionally, we recorded air temperature (Ta) and substrate temperature (Ts) of lizard microhabitats at the time of capture, and the operative temperature of lizard models left in the sun and shade from May to September 2014. My results showed that the mean Tb for all adult lizards was 33.6 ± 2.8°C, with a range of 24.0 to 40.2°C. This average Tb was similar but lower than those found in other populations in Southwestern United States. The results indicated that U. ornatus at IMRS displays mostly a thigmothermic behavior. Thermoregulatory behavior of these individuals showed that U. ornatus is a thermoconformer on IMRS. There was no statistical difference in mean Tb between males and females or between non-gravid females. However, there was a significant difference between lizards found in the sun and lizards found in the shade. It is expected that rising global temperatures will influence this region and therefore will have an impact on the population of U. ornatus too; possibly affecting aspects such as time for feeding, reproducing, and of course thermoregulating. Thus, it is important for us to understand the thermoregulatory needs of ectothermic organisms as they are dependent on the direct environmental temperatures for survival, especially since many recognize that rapid global warming has already been activated by human misuse of natural resources.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: As the pace of climate change has begun to accelerate so too has it become clear that the direct impacts thereof are likely to have profound consequences for many island systems. Moreover, it has also been suggested that climate change will exacerbate the effects of many invasive species, so further impacting both diversity and ecosystem functioning. Forecasts for such interactions have been most pronounced for the Southern Ocean islands, which are home to a wide variety of endemic species. This thesis is about such interactions and their specific impacts on a key endemic, the black-faced sheathbill (Chionis minor) on the Prince Edward Islands. Of increasing concern is how invasive rodent populations in the Southern Ocean may be responding to global climate change, as ameliorating conditions on these islands are forecast to decrease thermal and resource restrictions on rodents. However, firm evidence for changing rodent populations in response to climate change, and demonstrations of associated impacts on the terrestrial environment, are entirely absent for the region. In Chapter 2 of this thesis, these relationships are explored for invasive house mice (Mus musculus) on Marion Island. Using spatially explicit capture-recapture modeling, it is determined that mouse populations across a range of habitats have increased over time. Owing to an extended breeding season, made possible by ameliorating conditions brought on by climate change, the total number of mice on the island at annual peak density more than doubled over the past decade. It is also demonstrated that mice directly reduce invertebrate densities, with biomass losses up to two orders of magnitude in some habitats. Because of the importance of invertebrates to nutrient cycling on the island, such changes are likely to have significant ecosystem-level impacts. In Chapter 3 the focus expands to examine how increasing mouse impacts and other outcomes of climate change are affecting the ecology of the black-faced sheathbill. It has been established that invasive house mice are capable of suppressing the populations of several seabird species in the Southern Ocean. However, mouse impacts on the region’s few island endemic land-birds remain largely unexplored. Further, a significant effect of climate change may be realized by altering interspecific interactions, specifically food webs. A significant portion of sheathbill diets is derived from rockhopper penguins, a species currently under a climate-change-driven decline, which may have significant effects on sheathbills. The study found that terrestrial invertebrates are no longer a significant prey resource for sheathbills on Marion Island, and that sheathbills have effectively been displaced from a formerly important winter food resource by mice. In response, the number of sheathbills foraging in king penguin colonies increased. Moreover, a reduced rockhopper penguin population lead to significant declines in both the number and proportion of sheathbills foraging in rockhopper penguin colonies. The sum result was a significant decline in the body condition of female sheathbills. Rather than decrease reproductive output, sheathbills responded by decreasing clutch size and producing significantly fewer male nestlings. While population estimates did not detect a reduction in the number of sheathbills, population projections suggest that the population is in decline, with the reproductive population declining faster than the absolute population. There is need for greater study of island species, as for even relatively well-studied taxa such as birds many aspects of ecology remain significantly less studied when compared to species occurring on continents. For example, basal metabolic rate (BMR) is a fundamental characteristic of all endotherms, yet only a handful of island birds have had their BMR measured, and fewer still to a level that allows intraspecific analysis. In Chapter 4 the BMR of black-faced sheathbills on Marion Island was measured to determine whether the unique phylogenetic position and ecology of sheathbills equate to a unique BMR when allometrically compared to other birds. It was found that the BMR of sheathbills is typical for a bird of its size. However, significant intraspecific variation was found to occur, with differences in habitat quality a likely driver. The results of the study show that the combined effects of climate change and invasive species can have significant consequences for terrestrial endemics in the Southern Ocean. Further, the long-term changes observed in sheathbills make clear the need for improved documentation and study of island species in general, as many of the responses observed in this study are significant but subtle and would not have been evident without detailed knowledge of species ecology and vital rates. Giving greater focus to insular biota is imperative to understanding their current status and ecology as well as establishing a barometer against which further global change can be measured and mitigation measures evaluated. Specific conservation responses for the black-faced sheathbill on Marion Island include the provision of nest boxes at king penguin colonies, and eradication of house mice. The latter would have long-term benefits for the species, invertebrates, ecosystem functioning generally, and likely also for important seabirds such as several species of albatrosses whose chicks are being increasingly preyed on by mice. Eradication would, however, be difficult and expensive, and with substantial potential non-target effects, including on sheathbills, that would have to be carefully managed. In the absence of local mouse eradication, and with ongoing climate change, specific management of the sheathbill population through the provision of supplementary nesting sites seems the most appropriate conservation action. It should therefore be examined in small-scale trials to ascertain the likelihood of unintended consequences. Importantly, the maintenance of Prince Edward Island as largely free of invasive species is key to the conservation of the local black-faced sheathbill subspecies, Chionis minor marionensis, endemic to the Prince Edward Island group.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Soos die tempo van klimaatsverandering begin om te versnel, het dit ook duidelik geword dat die direkte impak daarvan waarskynlik ernstige gevolge vir baie eilande gaan hê. Verder word dit is ook voorgestel dat klimaatsverandering die gevolge van baie indringerspesies sal vererger, so ʼn verdere impak het op beide diversiteit en die funksionering van die ekosisteem. Voorspellings vir sulke interaksies is die meeste uitgespreek vir die Suidelike Oseaan-eilande, wat ook die tuiste van 'n wye verskeidenheid van endemiese spesies is. Hierdie tesis is oor sulke interaksies en hul spesifieke impak op 'n sleutel endemiese spesie is, die swart gesig skedebek (Chionis minor) op die Prince Edward-eilande. ʼn Groter bron van bekommernis is hoe uitheemse knaagdier bevolkings in die Suidelike Oseaan kan reageer teenoor globale klimaatsverandering, aangesien toestande op die eilande voorspel word om hitte en hulpbron beperkings vir knaagdiere te verminder. Maar, ferm bewyse vir die verandering van knaagdier bevolkings in reaksie op klimaatsverandering, en demonstrasies van gepaardgaande impakte op die terrestriële omgewing, is heeltemal afwesig vir die streek. In Hoofstuk 2 van hierdie tesis, word hierdie verhoudings ondersoek vir indringende huis muise (Mus musculus) op Marion-eiland. Ruimtelik vang-terugvang modelle word gebruik om vas te stel dat die muis bevolkings oor 'n verskeidenheid van habitatte mettertyd toegeneem het. As gevolg van 'n uitgebreide broeiseisoen as gevolg van die verligting van toestande gebring deur klimaatsverandering, het die totale aantal muise op die eiland by die jaarlikse hoogtepunt digtheid meer as verdubbel oor die afgelope dekade. Dit is ook getoon dat muise die digtheid van ongewerweldes direk verminder het, met biomassa verliese tot twee ordes in sommige habitatte. As gevolg van die belangrikheid van die ongewerweldes vir voedingstof sirkulering op die eiland, behoort sulke veranderinge waarskynlik 'n beduidende ekosisteem-vlak impak te hê. In Hoofstuk 3 word die fokus verbreed om te sien hoe die verhoging van die muis impakte en ander uitkomste van klimaatsverandering die ekologie van die swart gesig skedebek beïnvloed. Daar is vasgestel dat indringende huis muise in staat is om die bevolkings van verskeie spesies seevoëls te onderdruk in die Suidelike Oseaan. Maar die muis impak op die streek se paar eiland endemiese land voëls bly grootliks onverken. Verder kan 'n beduidende uitwerking van klimaatsverandering verwesenlik word deur die wysiging van interspesifieke interaksies, veral voedselwebbe. 'n Beduidende gedeelte van skedebek dieet word gekry van Geelkuifpikkewyne, 'n spesie wat tans onder 'n klimaat-veranderinggedrewe agteruitgang is, wat ook 'n beduidende uitwerking het op die skedebek. Die studie het gevind dat terrestriële ongewerweldes nie meer 'n beduidende prooi hulpbron vir die skedebek op Marion-eiland is nie, en dat die skedebek effektief is verplaas uit 'n voorheen belangrike winter kos hulpbron deur muise. In reaksie hierop het die aantal skedebekke wat kos soek in die koning pikkewyn kolonies toegeneem. Verder, 'n verlaagde Geelkuifpikkewyn bevolking lei tot 'n beduidende afname in beide die aantal en persentasie van skedebekke wat kos soek in Geelkuifpikkewyn kolonies. Die gevolg was 'n beduidende afname in die liggaamstoestand van die vroulike skedebekke. Eerder as ʼn afname van reproduksie, het skedebekke gereageer deur 'n vermindering in die aantal eiers en produseer aansienlik minder manlike kuikens. Terwyl bevolking skattings nie 'n afname in die aantal skedebekke kan vind nie, dui bevolking projeksies daarop dat die bevolking besig is om af te neem, met die voortplanting bevolking wat vinniger daal as die absolute bevolking. Daar is 'n behoefte vir 'n groter studie van eiland spesies, omdat selfs vir betreklik goed bestudeerde groepe soos voëls baie aspekte van die ekologie aansienlik minder bestudeer bly in vergelyking met spesies op die vastelande. Byvoorbeeld, basale metaboliese tempo (BMT) is 'n fundamentele kenmerk van alle endotermiese diere, maar net 'n handjievol van die eiland voëls het hul BMT laat meet, en nog minder tot 'n vlak wat dit moontlik maak intraspesifieke analise. In Hoofstuk 4 was die BMT van die swart gesig skedebek op Marion-eiland gemeet om te bepaal of die unieke filogenetiese posisie en ekologie van skedebekke gelyk aan 'n unieke BMT wanneer allometries vergelyk word met ander voëls. Daar is gevind dat die BMT van skedebekke tipies is vir 'n voël van sy grootte. Daar is egter belangrike intraspesifieke variasie gevind, met verskille in habitat kwaliteit as 'n waarskynlike verduideliking. Die resultate van die studie toon dat die gekombineerde effek van klimaatsverandering en indringerspesies beduidende gevolge vir terrestriele inheemse spesies in die Suidelike Oseaan kan hê. Verder maak die lang-termyn veranderinge waargeneem in skedebekke dit duidelik dat die behoefte aan verbeterde dokumentasie en studie van die eiland spesies in die algemeen, omdat baie van die reaksies waargeneem in hierdie studie betekenisvol is, maar subtiel en sou nie gewees het sonder gedetailleerde kennis van die spesies ekologie van die spesie nie. Om ʼn groter fokus op die insulêre biota te plaas is noodsaaklik om hul huidige status en die ekologie te begryp, sowel as om 'n barometer waarteen verdere globale verandering gemeet kan word en versagtende maatreëls geëvalueer. Spesifieke bewaring antwoorde vir die swart gesig skedebek op Marion-eiland sluit in die voorsiening van nes bokse by koning pikkewyne, en die uitwissing van huis muise. Laasgenoemde sou lang-termyn voordele vir die spesie en ongewerweldes hê, asook funksionering van die ekosisteem in die algemeen, en waarskynlik ook vir belangrike seevoëls soos verskeie spesies van albatrosse wie se kuikens toenemend geëet word deur muise. Uitwissing sou egter moeilik en duur wees, en het 'n aansienlike potensiaal vir nieteiken effekte, insluitend op skedebekke, wat sal versigtig moet bestuur word. In die afwesigheid van plaaslike muis uitwissing, en met voortdurende verandering van die klimaat, spesifieke bestuur van die skedebek bevolking deur die voorsiening van aanvullende broeiplekke blyk die mees geskikte bewaringsaksie. Dit moet dus ondersoek word in 'n kleinskaal proewe om die waarskynlikheid van onbedoelde gevolge te bepaal. Wat belangrik is die instandhouding van Prince Edward Eiland as grootliks vry van indringerspesies en is die sleutel tot die bewaring van die plaaslike swart gesig skedebek subspesie, Chionis minor marionensis, endemies aan die Prince Edward Eiland groep.

The first aim of this thesis is an introduction to some basic aspects of multivariate control theory which are relevant to the question of how the brain controls movements. A regulator is a device which forces a system to follow a specified trajectory in the presence of perturbations which might cause it to diverge from that trajectory. Regulation involves constructing an additional control input which depends upon the difference between the actual system state and the desired state. This requires the construction of a state estimate from raw data about system input and output. For effective state estimation, the sensor input gain to the state estimator needs to be time-varying. Under certain assumptions, the appropriate input gain can be specified analytically. The feedback regulation signal can then be constructed as a function of the state estimate. For effective regulation, the gain of the feedback function has to vary during maneuvers. Under certain assumptions an appropriate feedback gain can be specified analytically. The state observer input gain equations have a simple relationship to the feedback gain equations, so that gain specification is essentially the same task in each case. Cerebellar research has been dominated for the past 25 years by the theories of James Albus and David Marr. These mathematicians proposed similar models in which certain synapses in the cerebellar cortex are continuously modified by experience in such a way that movements which are consistently repeated under a given set of circumstances come to be performed automatically by the cerebellum. Much experimental work has focussed on the role of the vestibulo-cerebellum in fine control and learning of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. The state of the art along this line is formally described by Fujita's adaptive filter model of the cerebellar cortex. In chapter 4 it is shown that a basic feature of Fujita's model is inconsistent with available evidence. The 'Tensorial theory of brain function' is discussed in chapter 5. This is a novel theory of brain function which has been used in an attempt two explain cerebellar function. The attempt is a failure, based on sophistocated misconceptions and flawed by poor reasoning and clumsy analysis. The approach serves to confuse rather than clarify the question of cerebellar function. The final chapter of the first part of the thesis presents a basis for a new approach to cerebellar function based on the engineering theory of control of multivariate dynamical systems. It is proposed that the cerebellum is involved in movement regulation by controlling the gains of brainstem motor pathways, and in mapping the animal's environment by controlling the gains of sensory inputs to the midbrain. While learning undoubtedly does occur in the cerebellar cortex, this is not specifically a 'learning device', as commonly conceived. The second part of the thesis is concerned with the development and application of a method of system identification for characterising the dynamics of the vestibulo-ocular reflex and its components in an elasmobranch. The chosen method involves pulse-rate modulated bilateral electrical stimulation of the horizontal semicircular canal ampullary nerves. This produces a synthetic vestibulo-ocular reflex in a stationary preparation. The stimulus pattern is a pseudorandom binary sequence of pulse rates, so that cross-correlation of the stimulus pattern with the response signal gives a Unit Impulse Response dynamic signature for the system. Computer software for signal generation, recording, analysis and display was written by the author. The identification system was applied first to characterise the dynamics of the eye movement response to horizontal canal ampullary nerve stimulation, and compare this to the dynamics of the eye motor plant alone. The eye motor preparation acts as a first order low-pass filter with a time constant of about 0.2 seconds (16°C), while the ampullary preparation acts as a second order low-pass filter with a dominant time constant of about 0.75 seconds (16°C). Central pathways of the elasmobranch vestibulo-ocular reflex extend the time constant of the motor plant by a factor of 3-4, as in other animals. Eye movements predicted by fitted linear models accurately mimic eye movements recorded during experiments, suggesting both that central pathways of the reflex operate normally during this somewhat un-naturally evoked response and that the identification procedure is effective. Furthermore, combination of the ampullary nerve to eye movement transfer function obtained in this study, with head rotation to ampullary nerve transfer functions obtained by other workers, gives a consistent picture of elasmobranch vestibulo-ocular reflex function predicting compensatory eye movements in the band 0.2 - 4.0 Hz., and perhaps higher. The identification method has also been applied to produce models of vestibulocerebellar Purkinje cell dynamics during electrically evoked vestibular eye movements. Linear identification gives a poor characterisation of Purkinje cell activity during the high frequency vestibulo-ocular reflex. This is incompatible with linear phase-compensator models of the cerebellar cortex, but consistent with the reflex gain modulation theory of cerebellar function advocated in the first part of the thesis.

The skua (Family Stercorariidae) are a group of large, gull-like, predatory seabirds. Two skua species are found in the Antarctic region; the south polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki) and the brown skua (C. lonnbergi). The breeding distribution of the former, is restricted to the Antarctic continent and nearby islands, while the latter has a circumpolar distribution which extends northward from the Antarctic Peninsula and includes many of the Southern Ocean islands. The south polar skua is strictly monogamous, while in contrast, a number of populations of brown skua are comprised in part of communally breeding groups. The brown skua represents the only known example of a communally breeding seabird. In every skua species, breeding females are on average larger and heavier than males. However, in most skua species this dimorphism is relatively small and is of only limited use in sexing individuals. The discovery of sex-specific fragments in the DNA fingerprints of the south polar skua is reported. The multilocus probe pV47-2 hybridised to Hae III restriction fragments which were present exclusively in females and therefore presumably W-linked. The presence of these sex-specific fragments were used to identify female adults and chicks. In addition, the use of these fragments as potentially informative maternal markers is discussed. The parentage of the 13 families from two populations from Ross Island, Antarctica, determined by DNA fingerprinting, revealed a single instance of extra-pair paternity and a single instance of a chick which was parented by neither resident adult. The most likely explanation for the latter is the 'adoption' of a chick from a neighbouring territory. Similarly, DNA fingerprinting was used to assign the sex of individuals of brown skua from a population which breeds on the Chatham Islands, New Zealand. A large proportion of the Chatham Islands population breed in communal groups. Each communal group was shown to be comprised of a single female and two or more males. Consequently, the overall sex ratio amongst breeding birds was biased, with almost twice the number of males as females. In contrast the sex ratio amongst fledgling chicks did not differ significantly from 1:1. The patterns of reproductive success in breeding pairs and communal groups of the brown skua from the Chatham Islands population were determined using multilocus DNA fingerprinting. Sixteen breeding groups were examined, the parentage of 45 chicks produced over three breeding seasons was established using the probes 33.15 and 33.6. No evidence was found of either extra-pair paternity or extra-group fertilisation and there was no evidence of egg dumping by females in any breeding group. These results suggest that long-term banding records for breeding pairs and communal groups accurately reflect the overall reproductive success of these individual groups. In addition, preliminary band sharing analysis indicated that adult members of communal groups were not closely related. These findings are also supported by banding records and are in contrast to the findings of the majority of communally breeding species studied. In the 10 communally breeding groups examined, multiple paternity within a clutch was recorded on two of the 12 occasions in which two chicks were reared. Furthermore, analysis of parentage of the chicks belonging to communal groups in which the adults had remained unchanged for two or more seasons showed that some males had variable reproductive success in different seasons. These records suggest that estimates of reproductive success of individuals based on a single season's data can be misleading. Should temporal changes in paternity (and/or maternity) be shown to be common phenomena in other species, this would have major implications for the interpretation of many parentage studies. The explanation of altruistic behaviour is one of the central issues in contemporary evolutionary theory and behavioural ecology. One of the best known examples of apparent altruism is the helping behaviour which occurs in communal breeding groups such as those found in the brown skua. Within these groups individuals often help to raise offspring which are not their own. This behaviour is an apparent enigma in a world in which organisms are assumed to act in a selfish manner. Consequently, this behaviour has become a focal example at the centre of much evolutionary debate. A variety of theories have been suggested to explain helping behaviour, the most recent is that helping is an unselected consequence of the evolution of communal breeding. This hypothesis is discussed in relation to the recent literature and it is concluded that it does little to advance the current debate. An alternative theoretical approach to helping behaviour is outlined. In conclusion the general findings from the investigation of communal breeding in the brown skua are summarised and these findings are discussed. Finally, possible areas of future research are outlined.
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The Pinnotheridae is a family of decapod crustaceans comprising more than 120 mostly microphagous and commensal species. As symbionts of a variety of aquatic invertebrates, pinnotherids typically live in an intimate association with their host depending on it for an almost lifelong source of nourishment and shelter, together with a site for mating. The New Zealand pinnotherid fauna was thought to comprise only one species, Pinnotheres novaezelandiae Filhol, associated with a multitude of hosts. Recently, however, a separate species, P. atrinicola Page, has been described which is regarded as being host specific to the horse mussel Atrina zelandica Gray. In this context, the relationship between pea crabs and their hosts is of special interest, and is the focus of this thesis. An investigation into the population dynamics of the symbiotic relationship between P novaezelandiae and its host, the green-lip mussel Perna canaliculus, at Westmere Reef, Auckland between May 1986 and July 1988 is reported. Ovigerous females and Stage I males and females were found throughout the sampling period, indicating that reproduction is continuous in this species. The developmental composition of the pea crab population reveals that soft-shelled males, usually regarded as an anomalous instar, formed a significant component of the pea crab population at all times. It is suggested that these individuals represent a distinct facies, analogous to the Stage II female instar. The presence of a pea crab was found to have a highly significant detrimental effect on mussel condition. Analysis of the distribution of pea crabs among the mussel population indicates mature crabs display a repulsed distribution favouring to live a solitary existence, whereas younger (pre-hard and Stage I) crabs showed a random distribution in broad agreement with a theoretical Poisson distribution. The biological status of the two described taxa was investigated by a survey of electrophoretically detectable genetic variation of populations from throughout the North Island of New Zealand. Pea crabs from 18 host populations from nine geographically disparate localities were subjected to cellulose acetate and poly-acrylamide electrophoresis. Forty-one enzyme systems were screened for polymorphism. Clearly resolved enzyme phenotypes were obtained at 23 presumptive loci, of which l5 exhibited polymorphism. An analysis of electromorph frequency data revealed that both taxa are highly genetically structured and typified by high levels of polymorphism and heterozygosity; results atypical of brachyuran crabs. P- atrinicola was found to exhibit strong patterns of geographic differentiation and clinal variation in electromorph frequency. Of particular significance is the pattern of genetic differentiation observed among populations of p. novaezelandiae. Hierarchical F-statistics indicated that the preponderance of inter-population differentiation can be attributed to differences in electromorph frequency among host-associated populations of P. novaezelandiae within a sampling locality. Geographic differentiation was a comparatively insignificant factor in the structuring of the sampled P. novaezelandiae populations. Individuals belonging to two genetically very distinct units were found within a newly recorded host species, Mactra ovata ovata Gray at Green and Wood Bays, Manukau Harbour. Hardy-Weinberg analyses indicate the host-associated populations of P. novaezelandiae exhibit such a pronounced pattern of homozygote excess and disturbance from genetic equilibrium in sympatry that it is unreasonable to consider them as a single panmictic population. It is concluded that significant biological discontinuities based on host origin exist within the currently recognised taxon. Such a conclusion is supported by data presented on qualitative differences in host recognition observed between different host-associated populations of P. novaezelandiae. Conservatively these discontinuities indicate host race development, although a viable alternate hypothesis would be the presence of cryptic, host-specific biological species within P. novaezelandiae. Hostrace development as found here is a well recognised phenomenon in insect-host and parasitoid-host relationships, although little studied in marine symbiotic relationships. Such a phenomenon has important implications for ecological, behavioural and physiological studies on marine symbionts in general.

The thesis answers the general question of whether the quality of artificially reared insect species should be based on performance tests for intended use or whether quality should be based on a more holistic biological approach. The empirical research is carried out using the lepidopteran leafroller 'Cnephasia' jactatana (Walker). The thesis defines biological performance and quality in terms of the success of an insect population in survival and reproduction and regards the laboratory environment as an artificial habitat that insects must colonise in order to survive and reproduce. Changes in biological performance that occurred during 12 successive generations of laboratory rearing were due to selection, acclimatisation and domestication and not adaptation. Artificial colonisation is theoretically successful within a limited range of environmental factors. As the inherent genetic variability of the founder population determines the resilience of the population to changes in performance, the ranges of environmental factors during colonisation should be wide to 'capture' much of the variability. Using body size (weight) as an aspect of overall quality, the thesis presents evidence that the final instar larva of C. jactatana has a threshold mechanism (larval critical weight, LCW) that determines pupal and adult size. There is a proportionate decrease in weight from the maximum weight that a larva attains in the final instar (LMW) to pupa ( described as constant DP ) and to adult (DA). There is a direct relation between the latent feeding period (period between attaining an LCW and LMW), LMW, pupal and adult size, and the reproductive performance (fecundity ). Within the experimental conditions diet quality, temperature, photoperiod and artificial selection had no effect on the larval critical weight, DP or DA, the larval threshold mechanism in C. jactatana is probably a mechanical trigger that initiates pupation. Diet quality, temperature and thermophotoperiods affected pupal size, adult size and reproductive performance. Photoperiod had no significant effects on size and reproductive performance. Positive assortative selections for slow development and low pupal weight significantly decreased pupal and adult size, and reproductive performance. Selection for fast development and heavy pupal weight for three generations had no significant effect on size or reproductive performance. Larval critical weight is demonstrated as useful to define quality indices and predict the performance of laboratory reared insects. The general conclusion of the thesis is that insect quality should be defined more in terms of the success in survival and colonising ability rather than solely on the success for 'intended role' or 'fitness for use'.

Mammotropes were successfully identified in the anterior pituitary gland of Miniopterus schreibersii using immunocytochemical (ICC) staining at the light and electron microscopy level. Mammotropes were distributed throughout the gland, were polygonal in shape and during secretory activity contained numerous large secretory granules (350 - 800nm). Using double ICC labelling, prolactin and growth hormone were never co-localiszed and found in individual cells only. Plasma prolactin levels were successfully measured on a monthly basis using radioimmunoassay and monthly pituitary prolactin levels were quantified using morphometric analysis of immunogold ICC staining and densitometry with polyacrylamide gels. Seasonal changes in the ultrastructure of mammotropes, and pituitary and plasma prolactin concentrations in female Miniopterus schreibersii indicated that there was an increase in prolactin secretion during the second half of the period of delayed implantation and that prolactin secretion remained elevated during normal embryonic development and lactation. This suggests that prolactin may be part of the luteotropic and lactogenic complex, and that the hormone might be responsible for terminating the period of delayed implantation. The latter is supported by experiments, where exogenous prolactin initiated precocious implantation during early delayed implantation, and treatment with bromocryptine (which inhibits prolactin synthesis) retarded implantation. Activation of mammotropes to synthesise prolactin and an increase of plasma prolactin levels occurred shortly after the winter solstice (21 June), suggesting that increasing daylength may be the environmental cue, which terminates the period of delayed implantation in Miniopterus schreibersii.

This chapter about how to involve students of biologists in research work, using benefits of applied zoology. The first part of the chapter provides the overview of such questions as research activity of students, methods and conditions of its forming, feature for students of biologists. The second part is devoted to the step-by-step organization of research activity according to levels of readiness of students. Much attention in this part is paid to questions of applied zoology: directions and objects of researches; structure and content of laboratory works, scientific and practical and research projects; uniform approach to use of techniques of researches in field and laboratory conditions. For assessment of results of researches and formation of research competence of students such methods as rating system, a portfolio, methods of expert estimates are offered.

As a scientist, the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) program has been on my mind for more than three decades. As an educator, I have served in the classroom for 41 years. The merger of the physical and the ecological sciences was at the core of my teaching philosophy. As a science communicator, I informed the general public on issues of climate and climate change. As a collaborator, I found that understanding strengths and weaknesses in collaborative partnerships best ensures success. As a science leader, I served at the National Science Foundation (NSF) as the Director of the Division of Environmental Biology (DEB), established the Schoolyard LTER Program, and launched the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). My disciplinary background includes formal graduate education at the University of Wisconsin in meteorology, climatology, and paleoclimatology, as well as in oceanography and biology (mycology, botany, zoology, and genecology). As a postdoctoral fellow, my scientific identity was on track to culminate as a paleoclimatologist. As an assistant and associate professor, my identity morphed to include coastal geomorphology (Hayden et al. 1995). Finally, my experiences in the LTER program have vectored my career toward the interactions of climate and vegetation (Hayden 1998). My affiliation is with the Virginia Coast Reserve (VCR) site in the LTER program (1986–2014). As one of the founding principal investigators of the VCR site, I have served in subsequent renewals as its principal or co-principal investigator. Our site-based research plan focused on the Virginia Coast Reserve on Virginia’s eastern shore with a focus on the dynamics of the chain of 14 barrier islands, bounded by the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay to the south and Assateague Barrier Island to the north. This peninsula is 100 km in length by 20 km in width. Only the islands fronting the Mississippi delta are more dynamic in both the temporal and spatial domains. Prior to joining the LTER program, my research was hemispheric to regional in scope, and it focused on the environmental dynamics of the Atlantic Coast from Florida to Cape Cod at 50-m intervals (Fenster and Hayden 2007).

This chapter relates to the emerging field of evolutionary psychology. Building on past research understanding of the mechanisms underlying animal behavior is presented. Current researches in this field offer many insights into the development of social behaviours displayed among humans. The contribution of animal behaviour research to unravel the evolution of individual and social behaviours including foraging strategies, reproductive systems, social behaviour, dominance hierarchies, social communication, parental investment patterns, evolution of eusociality, among others, are highlighted. Finally, the applications of animal behaviour studies in the area of wildlife such as conservation, management of national parks, and zoo management are indicated. It may be noted that the developments in the area of animal behavior are impressive and are perhaps as good as noted in allied disciplines of anthropology and zoology. However, animal behaviour research is currently an underdeveloped field of psychology. India could perhaps rejuvenate its close association with animal world and nature, a main part of its mythology and real life, by developing this area.

Laurence Picken contributed to both the sciences and the humanities, and had in particular pioneered a radical transformation in musical perspectives. His work in zoology brought national and international recognition with the award of the Sc.D. in 1952, Fellowship of the Institute of Biology, a Walker-Ames Visiting Professorship at the University of Washington in 1959, and the Linnean Society's Trail Medal in 1960. The Organization of Cells and Other Organisms was the crowning achievement of a long and distinguished career in the natural sciences. Alongside the zoological research and teaching, Picken developed a parallel career as a musicologist, issuing a series of studies on Chinese and other musics that were quite as original and, for their time, definitive, as his scientific publications.

This chapter examines the early history of Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology and broader conversations about the representation of the natural world as fixed and stable. While the museum’s founder, Louis Agassiz, emphasized the value of preserved specimens to research and teaching, many collectors and writers questioned such practices. After donating turtles to the museum, Henry David Thoreau contemplated the ethical and scientific implications of freezing nature for extended study. In children’s fiction, Louisa May Alcott emphasized the relationship between collecting specimens and moral order, while highlighting the growing gendered divide between scientific practice in the museum and the parlor. And in philosophical writings, William James drew on classification to consider more flexible possibilities to fixed theories. These accounts show how writers sought to promote a deeper understanding of flux and change both within the museum and beyond.

Of all possible intelligent NL applications and semantic artifacts, a special value is today ascribed to building the question answering systems (Q&A) with broad and wide ontological learning (Onto Query Project, 2004), classified as open-domain Q&A knowledge systems [Question Answering, From Wikipedia, 2006]. This line of research is considered as upgrading of a traditional keyword query processing in database systems, as endowing the Web search engines with answering deduction capacities. Ideally, such a general-purpose Q&A agent should be able to cover questions (matters, subjects, topics, issues, themes) from any branch of knowledge and domain of interest by giving answers to any meaningful questions, like the Digital Aristotle, “an application that will encompass much of the world’s scientific knowledge and be capable of answering novel questions and advanced problemsolving” (Project Halo, 2004). The trade name of the Digital Aristotle was inspired by the scholar mostly admired for the depth and width of his perception, whose mind spread over ontology, physics, logics, epistemology, biology, zoology, medicine, psychology, literary theory, politics, and art.

Aristotle’s first period in Athens had lasted for twenty years. In 347 he suddenly left, probably for political reasons. During his travels, 347–35, he undertook most of the work on which his scientific reputation rests. He made or collected observations in astronomy, meteorology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and other sciences; but his scientific fame rests primarily on his work in zoology and biology. According to ‘Zoological researches’, his studies on animals laid the foundations of the biological sciences and were not superseded for over two millennia. His History of Animals is not flawless, but it is a masterpiece. Nowhere else does Aristotle show more vividly his ‘desire to know’.

In laboratory classes on invertebrate zoology for first-year students of the Biology and Ecology Faculty of the Y. Kupala Grodno State University current control of knowledge in a test form is carried out. The number of questions in the task is 11–20, 5– 10 minutes for execution are allotted, one, two or more correct answers are selected from the proposed options. For each correct answer, a point is set; for erroneous answers, penalty points are entered. The regular use of test control increased the level of students' assimilation of educational material and optimized the current control of knowledge.

In field practice on invertebrate zoology and other subjects, in addition to the traditional methods of collecting insects, we can use pheromone traps. Traps were applied in studying the dynamics of xylophilous insects: a sawyer beetle and two bark beetles (an eight-dentated bark beetle and a six-dentated bark beetle). The pheromonitoring have been obtained seasonal variations in the number of populations and density of these species of some nature conservation area in Karelia. The collection efficiency of bark beetles during the period of the maximum number of species was about 600 individuals.