Статті в журналах: "Lithium-ion (Li-ion)"

1

Wu, Feng, Hua Quan Lu, Yue Feng Su, Shi Chen, and Yi Biao Guan. "A Simple Way of Pre-Doping Lithium Ion into Carbon Negative Electrode for Lithium Ion Capacitor." Materials Science Forum 650 (May 2010): 142–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.650.142.

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A simple strategy of pre-doping lithium ion into carbon negative electrode for lithium ion capacitor was introduced. In this strategy, a kind of Li-containing compound was added directly into the positive electrode of the lithium ion capacitor (LIC). When the lithium ion capacitor was charging first time, the Li-containing compound releases Li+, and the pre-doping of lithium ion into the negative electrode was performed. Here, we developed a lithium ion capacitor using Meso-carbon microbeads (MCMB)/activated carbon (AC) as the negative and positive electrode materials, respectively and use the lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) as the Li-containing compound, which supply the Li+ ions for pre-doping. The results demonstrated that, by adding 20 percent of LiFePO4 into the positive electrode, the efficiency of the capacitor increases from lower than 60% up to higher than 90%, and the capacitor shows good capacitance characteristics and high capacity.

2

Huang, Yuxi, Rui Ding, Qilei Xu, Wei Shi, Danfeng Ying, Yongfa Huang, Tong Yan, Caini Tan, Xiujuan Sun, and Enhui Liu. "A conversion and pseudocapacitance-featuring cost-effective perovskite fluoride KCuF3 for advanced lithium-ion capacitors and lithium-dual-ion batteries." Dalton Transactions 50, no. 25 (2021): 8671–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1dt00904d.

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A cost-effective perovskite fluoride KCuF₃ material has been introduced as an advanced anode for lithium-ion capacitors (LICs) and lithium-dual-ion batteries (Li-DIBs), showing a conversion mechanism and pseudocapacitive kinetics for Li ion storage.

3

Yu, Yang, Fei Lu, Na Sun, Aoli Wu, Wei Pan, and Liqiang Zheng. "Single lithium-ion polymer electrolytes based on poly(ionic liquid)s for lithium-ion batteries." Soft Matter 14, no. 30 (2018): 6313–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8sm00907d.

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4

Zhao, Chen-Zi, Peng-Yu Chen, Rui Zhang, Xiang Chen, Bo-Quan Li, Xue-Qiang Zhang, Xin-Bing Cheng, and Qiang Zhang. "An ion redistributor for dendrite-free lithium metal anodes." Science Advances 4, no. 11 (November 2018): eaat3446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat3446.

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Lithium (Li) metal anodes have attracted considerable interest due to their ultrahigh theoretical gravimetric capacity and very low redox potential. However, the issues of nonuniform lithium deposits (dendritic Li) during cycling are hindering the practical applications of Li metal batteries. Herein, we propose a concept of ion redistributors to eliminate dendrites by redistributing Li ions with Al-doped Li6.75La3Zr1.75Ta0.25O12 (LLZTO) coated polypropylene (PP) separators. The LLZTO with three-dimensional ion channels can act as a redistributor to regulate the movement of Li ions, delivering a uniform Li ion distribution for dendrite-free Li deposition. The standard deviation of ion concentration beneath the LLZTO composite separator is 13 times less than that beneath the routine PP separator. A Coulombic efficiency larger than 98% over 450 cycles is achieved in a Li | Cu cell with the LLZTO-coated separator. This approach enables a high specific capacity of 140 mAh g−1 for LiFePO4 | Li pouch cells and prolonged cycle life span of 800 hours for Li | Li pouch cells, respectively. This strategy is facile and efficient in regulating Li-ion deposition by separator modifications and is a universal method to protect alkali metal anodes in rechargeable batteries.

5

Sun, Yifei, Michele Kotiuga, Dawgen Lim, Badri Narayanan, Mathew Cherukara, Zhen Zhang, Yongqi Dong, et al. "Strongly correlated perovskite lithium ion shuttles." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 39 (August 13, 2018): 9672–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805029115.

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Solid-state ion shuttles are of broad interest in electrochemical devices, nonvolatile memory, neuromorphic computing, and biomimicry utilizing synthetic membranes. Traditional design approaches are primarily based on substitutional doping of dissimilar valent cations in a solid lattice, which has inherent limits on dopant concentration and thereby ionic conductivity. Here, we demonstrate perovskite nickelates as Li-ion shuttles with simultaneous suppression of electronic transport via Mott transition. Electrochemically lithiated SmNiO3 (Li-SNO) contains a large amount of mobile Li+ located in interstitial sites of the perovskite approaching one dopant ion per unit cell. A significant lattice expansion associated with interstitial doping allows for fast Li+ conduction with reduced activation energy. We further present a generalization of this approach with results on other rare-earth perovskite nickelates as well as dopants such as Na+. The results highlight the potential of quantum materials and emergent physics in design of ion conductors.

6

Chinnam, Parameswara Rao, Vijay Chatare, Sumanth Chereddy, Ramya Mantravadi, Michael Gau, Joe Schwab, and Stephanie L. Wunder. "Multi-ionic lithium salts increase lithium ion transference numbers in ionic liquid gel separators." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 4, no. 37 (2016): 14380–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6ta05499d.

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Solid ion-gel separators for lithium or lithium ion batteries have been prepared with high lithium ion transference numbers (t_Li+ = 0.36), high room temperature ionic conductivities (σ → 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹), and moduli in the MPa range.

7

Guo, Ai Hong, Shuang Feng, Yun Ting Mi, and Hong Zhi Li. "Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of Rechargeable Battery Electrolyte Lithium Bis(heptafluoroisopropyl)tetrafluorophosphate." Applied Mechanics and Materials 327 (June 2013): 128–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.327.128.

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Lithium-ion secondary cell has high energy density, stable and high working voltage, wide working temperature and long working term. It is a safe and clean energy resource without pollution. At present, Lithium Hexafluorophosphate is used as conducting electrolyte lithium salt in lithium-ion secondary batteries. But Lithium Hexafluorophosphate as conducting electrolyte lithium salt has some disadvantages such as hydrolysis and instability. Lithium Bis (heptafluoroisopropyl) t-etrafluorophosphate Li [(C3F7)2PF4] was received by simons process from diisopropylchlorophosphane in this paper. As electrolyte of Li ion secondary cell, Li [(C3F7)2PF4] had lower vapor pressure than LiPF6 in the solvent in the same temperature, comparable conductivity and oxidation stability in the same concentration in room temperature. It was worth mentioning that Li [(C3F7)2PF4] has excellent stability towards hydrolysis. The synthesis process is safe and easily controlled.

8

Guo, Ai Hong, Feng Yuan, Chun Na Zhang, and Wen Bo Su. "Electrochemical Characterization of Lithium Bis(heptafluoroisopropyl)tetrafluorophosphate with Properties of Chemical Materials." Advanced Materials Research 700 (May 2013): 11–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.700.11.

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Lithium-ion secondary cell has high energy density, stable and high working voltage, wide working temperature and long working term. It is a safe and clean energy resource without pollution. At present, Lithium Hexafluorophosphate is used as conducting electrolyte lithium salt in lithium-ion secondary batteries. But Lithium Hexafluorophosphate as conducting electrolyte lithium salt has some disadvantages such as hydrolysis and instability. Lithium Bis (heptafluoroisopropyl) t-etrafluorophosphate Li [(C3F7)2PF4] was received by simons process from diisopropylchlorophosphane in this paper. As electrolyte of Li ion secondary cell, Li [(C3F7)2PF4] had lower vapor pressure than LiPF6 in the solvent in the same temperature, comparable conductivity and oxidation stability in the same concentration in room temperature. It was worth mentioning that Li [(C3F7)2PF4] has excellent stability towards hydrolysis. The synthesis process is safe and easily controlled.

9

Gurmesa, Gamachis Sakata, Natei Ermias Benti, Mesfin Diro Chaka, Girum Ayalneh Tiruye, Qinfang Zhang, Yedilfana Setarge Mekonnen, and Chernet Amente Geffe. "Fast 3D-lithium-ion diffusion and high electronic conductivity of Li2MnSiO4 surfaces for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries." RSC Advances 11, no. 16 (2021): 9721–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1ra00642h.

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The DFT analysis revealed fast 3D-lithium-ion diffusion pathways and high electronic conductivity in the Li₂MnSiO₄ surface, and thus paving the way for designing and developing efficient and low-cost rechargeable lithium-ion batteries.

10

Xu, Shenzhen, Ryan M. Jacobs, Ha M. Nguyen, Shiqiang Hao, Mahesh Mahanthappa, Chris Wolverton, and Dane Morgan. "Lithium transport through lithium-ion battery cathode coatings." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 3, no. 33 (2015): 17248–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ta01664a.

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11

Roselin, L. Selva, Ruey-Shin Juang, Chien-Te Hsieh, Suresh Sagadevan, Ahmad Umar, Rosilda Selvin, and Hosameldin H. Hegazy. "Recent Advances and Perspectives of Carbon-Based Nanostructures as Anode Materials for Li-ion Batteries." Materials 12, no. 8 (April 15, 2019): 1229. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12081229.

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Rechargeable batteries are attractive power storage equipment for a broad diversity of applications. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used the superior rechargeable battery in portable electronics. The increasing needs in portable electronic devices require improved Li-ion batteries with excellent results over many discharge-recharge cycles. One important approach to ensure the electrodes’ integrity is by increasing the storage capacity of cathode and anode materials. This could be achieved using nanoscale-sized electrode materials. In the article, we review the recent advances and perspectives of carbon nanomaterials as anode material for Lithium-ion battery applications. The first section of the review presents the general introduction, industrial use, and working principles of Li-ion batteries. It also demonstrates the advantages and disadvantages of nanomaterials and challenges to utilize nanomaterials for Li-ion battery applications. The second section of the review describes the utilization of various carbon-based nanomaterials as anode materials for Li-ion battery applications. The last section presents the conclusion and future directions.

12

Ji, Zhi Yong, Jun Sheng Yuan, and Ying Hui Xie. "Synthesis of Lithium Ion-Sieve with Fractional Steps." Advanced Materials Research 96 (January 2010): 233–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.96.233.

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To meet increasing demand for lithium, it is very essential for exploiting the lithium resources dissolved in seawater, groundwater and brine. It’s prospected that extracting lithium from solution with lithium ion-sieve, that is, spinel lithium magnesium oxides. Preparing high effective lithium ion-sieve is the heart of the technology. Magnesium oxide (MnOOH), the precursor (Li1.6Mn1.6O4) and the lithium ion-sieve were prepared successively, and their structure and properties were characterized with AAS, XRD and SEM. The results show that fibrous MnOOH is synthesized via hydrothermal reaction of KMnO4 and ethanol at 120°C for 24 h, and brown Li1.6Mn1.6O4 with little impurity is prepared with the Li/Mn mole ratio 4 after hydrothermal reaction of MnOOH and 4 mol/L LiOH at 120°C for 24 h and roast 4 h at 400°C, then lithium ion-sieve is obtained after washing 24 h with 0.5 mol/L HCl solutions and its adsorption capacity for Li+ reaches 38.26 mg/g, which has considerable potentiality comparing to its theory value. All these suggested that synthesis of single phase Li1.6Mn1.6O4 should be essential for next study on extraction lithium with lithium ion-sieve from seawater, groundwater and brine.

13

Wu, Feixiang, and Gleb Yushin. "Conversion cathodes for rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries." Energy & Environmental Science 10, no. 2 (2017): 435–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6ee02326f.

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Commercial lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries built with Ni- and Co-based intercalation-type cathodes suffer from low specific energy, high toxicity and high cost. Conversion-type cathodes offer an opportunity to overcome such limitations.

14

Kuganathan, Navaratnarajah, Efstratia Sgourou, Yerassimos Panayiotatos, and Alexander Chroneos. "Defect Process, Dopant Behaviour and Li Ion Mobility in the Li2MnO3 Cathode Material." Energies 12, no. 7 (April 7, 2019): 1329. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12071329.

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Lithium manganite, Li2MnO3, is an attractive cathode material for rechargeable lithium ion batteries due to its large capacity, low cost and low toxicity. We employed well-established atomistic simulation techniques to examine defect processes, favourable dopants on the Mn site and lithium ion diffusion pathways in Li2MnO3. The Li Frenkel, which is necessary for the formation of Li vacancies in vacancy-assisted Li ion diffusion, is calculated to be the most favourable intrinsic defect (1.21 eV/defect). The cation intermixing is calculated to be the second most favourable defect process. High lithium ionic conductivity with a low activation energy of 0.44 eV indicates that a Li ion can be extracted easily in this material. To increase the capacity, trivalent dopants (Al3+, Co3+, Ga3+, Sc3+, In3+, Y3+, Gd3+ and La3+) were considered to create extra Li in Li2MnO3. The present calculations show that Al3+ is an ideal dopant for this strategy and that this is in agreement with the experiential study of Al-doped Li2MnO3. The favourable isovalent dopants are found to be the Si4+ and the Ge4+ on the Mn site.

15

Zeng, Hong, Tao Tao, Ying Wu, Wen Qi, Chunjiang Kuang, Shaoxiong Zhou, and Ying Chen. "Lithium ferrite (Li0.5Fe2.5O4) nanoparticles as anodes for lithium ion batteries." RSC Adv. 4, no. 44 (2014): 23145–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ra02957g.

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16

Sun, Yongquan, Saurabh Saxena, and Michael Pecht. "Derating Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Batteries." Energies 11, no. 12 (November 26, 2018): 3295. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en11123295.

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Derating is widely applied to electronic components and products to ensure or extend their operational life for the targeted application. However, there are currently no derating guidelines for Li-ion batteries. This paper presents derating methodology and guidelines for Li-ion batteries using temperature, discharge C-rate, charge C-rate, charge cut-off current, charge cut-off voltage, and state of charge (SOC) stress factors to reduce the rate of capacity loss and extend battery calendar life and cycle life. Experimental battery degradation data from our testing and the literature have been reviewed to demonstrate the role of stress factors in battery degradation and derating for two widely used Li-ion batteries: graphite/LiCoO2 (LCO) and graphite/LiFePO4 (LFP). Derating factors have been computed based on the battery capacity loss to quantitatively evaluate the derating effects of the stress factors and identify the significant factors for battery derating.

17

Kaneko, Mayumi, Masanobu Nakayama, and Masataka Wakihara. "Lithium-ion conduction in elastomeric binder in Li-ion batteries." Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 11, no. 8 (December 20, 2006): 1071–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10008-006-0239-3.

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18

Ma, Quanxin, Deying Mu, Yuanlong Liu, Shibo Yin, and Changsong Dai. "Enhancing coulombic efficiency and rate capability of high capacity lithium excess layered oxide cathode material by electrocatalysis of nanogold." RSC Advances 6, no. 24 (2016): 20374–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ra26667j.

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A lithium-rich cathode material Li_1.2Mn_0.56Ni_0.16Co_0.08O₂ modified with nanogold (Au@LMNCO) for lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries was prepared using co-precipitation, solid-state reaction and surface treatment techniques.

19

Yang, Shan Shan, Ma Li Zhou, Jia Qi Wu, Jiang Nan Shen, and Cong Jie Gao. "Development and Adsorption Properties for a Novel Lithium Ion-Sieve." Materials Science Forum 852 (April 2016): 691–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.852.691.

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The lithium ion-sieve precursor was prepared with LiOH and Mn (CH3COO)2 as the starting reagents, H2O2 as the oxidant and ethanol solution (volume percent 2.5%) as solution by combination of sol-gel, hydrothermal and low-temperature solid state methods, and then changed into lithium ion-sieve after eluting Li+ by the mixture of HCl and Na2S2O8 solution. The influence of synthetic conditions on the structures and adsorption properties of lithium ion-sieve was investigated in detail. The results suggest that the pure phase lithium ion-sieve can be synthesized when Li/Mn molar ratio is 3/1, 3.2mL H2O2 is added after LiOH and Mn (CH3COO)2 react for 36h and the heat treatment way of programmed temperature from 410°C (2h) to 510°C (3h) is adopted in the progress of solid state reaction. The loss rate of dissolved Mn is less than 2.5% during pickling Li+. And the highest adsorption capacity can achieve 20.5mg/g.

20

Fu, Kun (Kelvin), Yunhui Gong, Jiaqi Dai, Amy Gong, Xiaogang Han, Yonggang Yao, Chengwei Wang, et al. "Flexible, solid-state, ion-conducting membrane with 3D garnet nanofiber networks for lithium batteries." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 26 (June 15, 2016): 7094–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1600422113.

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Beyond state-of-the-art lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology with metallic lithium anodes to replace conventional ion intercalation anode materials is highly desirable because of lithium’s highest specific capacity (3,860 mA/g) and lowest negative electrochemical potential (∼3.040 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode). In this work, we report for the first time, to our knowledge, a 3D lithium-ion–conducting ceramic network based on garnet-type Li6.4La3Zr2Al0.2O12 (LLZO) lithium-ion conductor to provide continuous Li+ transfer channels in a polyethylene oxide (PEO)-based composite. This composite structure further provides structural reinforcement to enhance the mechanical properties of the polymer matrix. The flexible solid-state electrolyte composite membrane exhibited an ionic conductivity of 2.5 × 10−4 S/cm at room temperature. The membrane can effectively block dendrites in a symmetric Li | electrolyte | Li cell during repeated lithium stripping/plating at room temperature, with a current density of 0.2 mA/cm2 for around 500 h and a current density of 0.5 mA/cm2 for over 300 h. These results provide an all solid ion-conducting membrane that can be applied to flexible LIBs and other electrochemical energy storage systems, such as lithium–sulfur batteries.

21

Shao, Dan, Dewei Rao, Aihua Wu, and Xiangyi Luo. "How the Sodium Cations in Anode Affect the Performance of a Lithium-ion Battery." Batteries 8, no. 8 (July 28, 2022): 78. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080078.

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Large cations such as potassium ion (K+) and sodium ion (Na+) could be introduced into the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery system during material synthesis or battery assembly. However, the effect of these cations on charge storage or electrochemical performance has not been fully understood. In this study, sodium ion was taken as an example and introduced into the lithium titanium oxide (LTO) anode through the carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) binder. After the charge/discharge cycles, these ions doped into the LTO lattice and improved both the lithium-ion diffusivity and the electronic conductivity of the anode. The sodium ion’s high concentration (>12.9%), however, resulted in internal doping of Na+ into the LTO lattice, which retarded the transfer of lithium ions due to repulsion and physical blocking. The systematic study presented here shows that large cations with an appropriate concentration in the electrode would be beneficial to the electrochemical performance of the Li-ion battery.

22

Walter, Marc, Maksym V. Kovalenko, and Kostiantyn V. Kravchyk. "Challenges and benefits of post-lithium-ion batteries." New Journal of Chemistry 44, no. 5 (2020): 1677–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9nj05682c.

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23

He, Yong Tai, Li Xian Xiao, Yue Hong Peng, and Jin Hao Liu. "Research on the Solid Thin Film Lithium-Ion Battery Integrated on-Chip." Advanced Materials Research 915-916 (April 2014): 1153–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.915-916.1153.

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the solid thin film lithium-ion battery integrated on chip was designed and analyzed based on solid lithium-ion battery structure, materials and microelectronics processing technology. The design model of the solid lithium-ion battery consists of Li negative electrode, Li3PO4 electrolyte and LiCoO2 positive electrode. The preparation process of the solid lithium-ion battery integrated on chip was researched, and the process consists of seven main steps. In addition, the characteristics of the design model of the solid lithium-ion battery were analyzed using COMSOL. The results show that the solid lithium-ion battery has small internal resistance and large discharge capacity. The discharge capacity of the solid lithium-ion battery under the discharge current of 25C reaches 75% of the discharge current of 1C.

24

Wen, Zhong Sheng, Mei Kang Cheng, and Jun Cai Sun. "Research on the Phase Transformation of Silicon Anode Material for Lithium Ion Batteries by Constant-Capacity Discharging." Advanced Materials Research 129-131 (August 2010): 621–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.129-131.621.

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Silicon is the most attractive anode candidate for lithium ion batteries for its high theoretical capacity. However, it is difficult to be applied as anode material of lithium ion batteries for its poor cyclability and high irreversible capacity caused by structure collapse during the course of lithium insertion-extraction. Considering finding an efficient way to alleviate the crystal transformation during lithium insertion, the silicon anode with the highest theoretical capacity of all know non-lithium substances, was discharged by controlling its insertion capacity. The phase transformation during lithium ion insertion into silicon was investigated in detail. The lithium-insertion phases produced by constant capacity processing consist of Li-Si binary crystals and amorphous host phase. A stable Li12Si7 phase was found under different discharge conditions. This Li-Si binary phase formed by constant capacity showed high structure-reversibility during lithium insertion-extraction. The enhanced cyclability of silicon anode during constant-capacity discharging benefits from the mixture phases of silicon amorphous and crystal Li-Si alloy.

25

Gabrisch, H., R. Yazami, and B. Fultz. "Lattice defects in LiCoO2." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, S2 (August 2001): 518–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192760002866x.

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Rechargeable Lithium ion batteries are widely used as portable power source in communication and computer technology, prospective uses include medical implantable devices and electric vehicles. The safety and cycle life of Li ion batteries is improved over that of batteries containing metallic lithium anodes because the insertion of Li between the crystal layers of both electrodes was proved to be safer than the electroplating of Li onto a metallic Lithium anode. in Li-ion batteries, the charge transport is governed by the oscillation of Li ions between anode and cathode. They are sometimes called “rocking-chair“ batteries. The most common materials for these batteries are lithiated carbons for anodes, and transition metal oxides (LixCoO2) as cathodes.LixCoO2 has an ordered rhombohedral Rm structure consisting of alternating layers of Co-O-Li-O-Co. The capacity and energy density of the batteries is limited by the amount of Li that can be stored in the anode and cathode materials.

26

Shuai, Yi, Jin Lou, Yu Wang, and Kanghua Chen. "An air-stable prelithiation technology for lithium ion-sulfurized polyacrylonitrile battery." Functional Materials Letters 13, no. 01 (September 20, 2019): 1950094. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793604719500942.

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Lithium-sulfurized polyacrylonitrile battery is a promising candidate among lithium metal batteries. Nevertheless, the formation of Li dendrites is recognized the worst problem for battery. In this study, we demonstrate an air-stable prelithiation technology for highly reversible Li ion-S@PAN battery. A sandwich-like structure is designed for a lithium–silicon/graphite compound, which not only prevent attack of the lithium surface from humid air, but also improve the lithiation progress more convenient and reliable. When test in Li ion-sulfurized polyacrylonitrile battery, a specific capacity up to 560[Formula: see text]mAh[Formula: see text], and only 24% capacity loss is witnessed after 1500 cycles at 1000[Formula: see text]mA[Formula: see text].

27

Wang, Hansen, Yangying Zhu, Sang Cheol Kim, Allen Pei, Yanbin Li, David T. Boyle, Hongxia Wang, et al. "Underpotential lithium plating on graphite anodes caused by temperature heterogeneity." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 47 (November 9, 2020): 29453–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2009221117.

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Rechargeability and operational safety of commercial lithium (Li)-ion batteries demand further improvement. Plating of metallic Li on graphite anodes is a critical reason for Li-ion battery capacity decay and short circuit. It is generally believed that Li plating is caused by the slow kinetics of graphite intercalation, but in this paper, we demonstrate that thermodynamics also serves a crucial role. We show that a nonuniform temperature distribution within the battery can make local plating of Li above 0 V vs. Li0/Li+(room temperature) thermodynamically favorable. This phenomenon is caused by temperature-dependent shifts of the equilibrium potential of Li0/Li+. Supported by simulation results, we confirm the likelihood of this failure mechanism during commercial Li-ion battery operation, including both slow and fast charging conditions. This work furthers the understanding of nonuniform Li plating and will inspire future studies to prolong the cycling lifetime of Li-ion batteries.

28

Xu, Henghui, Po-Hsiu Chien, Jianjian Shi, Yutao Li, Nan Wu, Yuanyue Liu, Yan-Yan Hu, and John B. Goodenough. "High-performance all-solid-state batteries enabled by salt bonding to perovskite in poly(ethylene oxide)." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 38 (August 29, 2019): 18815–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1907507116.

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Flexible and low-cost poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-based electrolytes are promising for all-solid-state Li-metal batteries because of their compatibility with a metallic lithium anode. However, the low room-temperature Li-ion conductivity of PEO solid electrolytes and severe lithium-dendrite growth limit their application in high-energy Li-metal batteries. Here we prepared a PEO/perovskite Li3/8Sr7/16Ta3/4Zr1/4O3 composite electrolyte with a Li-ion conductivity of 5.4 × 10−5 and 3.5 × 10−4 S cm−1 at 25 and 45 °C, respectively; the strong interaction between the F− of TFSI− (bis-trifluoromethanesulfonimide) and the surface Ta5+ of the perovskite improves the Li-ion transport at the PEO/perovskite interface. A symmetric Li/composite electrolyte/Li cell shows an excellent cyclability at a high current density up to 0.6 mA cm−2. A solid electrolyte interphase layer formed in situ between the metallic lithium anode and the composite electrolyte suppresses lithium-dendrite formation and growth. All-solid-state Li|LiFePO4 and high-voltage Li|LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 batteries with the composite electrolyte have an impressive performance with high Coulombic efficiencies, small overpotentials, and good cycling stability.

29

Kushwaha, Lt Col Pankaj. "Review: Li-ion Batteries: Basics, Advancement, Challenges & Applications in Military." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 9, no. 8 (August 31, 2021): 3009–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.37905.

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Abstract: Li-ion battery technology has become very important in recent years as these batteries show great promise as power source. They power most of today’s portable devices and seem to overcome the psychological barriers against the use of such high energy density devices on a larger scale. Lithium-ion batteries are being widely used in military applications for over a decade. These man portable applications include tactical radios, thermal imagers, ECM, ESM, and portable computing. In the next five years, due to the rapid inventions going on in li-ion batteries, the usage of lithium batteries will further expand to heavy-duty platforms, such as military vehicles, boats, shelter applications, aircraft and missiles. The aim of this paper is to review key aspects of Li-ion batteries, the basic science behind their operation, the most relevant components, anodes, cathodes, electrolyte solution as well as important future directions for R&D of advanced Li-ion batteries for demanding use in Indian Armed Forces which are deployed in very harsh conditions across the country. Keywords: Li-ion Battery, NiCd battery

30

Park, Habin, Anthony Engler, Nian Liu, and Paul Kohl. "Cyclic Carbonate-Based, Single-Ion Conducting Polymer Electrolytes for Li-Ion Batteries: Battery Performance." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-01, no. 2 (July 7, 2022): 329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-012329mtgabs.

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Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) are a pathway for safe, and high energy and power lithium batteries due to their thermal stability and low vapor pressure. Although polymers can be flexible and dimensional stability, it is lithium dendritic suppression can be a challenge for any electrolyte. Conventional SPEs have both mobile cations and anions, which migrate and cause concentration polarization. The low transference number for lithium ions in an electrolyte contributes lithium concentration gradients causing concentration polarization and lithium dendrites [1,2]. Single-ion conducting SPEs have been reported to demonstrate lithium ion only conduction in the electrolyte as well as retain their high mechanical stability during cycling. However, their low ionic conductivity is due to stationary phase of the tethered anion in the polymer matrix and cation-anion complexation [3]. In this study, a cyclic carbonate neutral moiety was included in the SPE to help dissociate the lithium cation from the tethered anion matrix to increase the ionic conductivity and help form the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer. The cyclic carbonate unit in the SPE is similar to the cyclic carbonate solvent in a conventional lithium ion battery and could participate in the solvation of the lithium cation in the SPE. The cyclic carbonate monomer in the SPE can participate in SEI-forming electrochemical reactions on the electrode surface and suppress undesirable side reactions and lithium dendritic growth. Satisfactory level of rate and cycling performance was achieved with the novel neutral monomers in the single-ion conducting SPEs. [1] H. Zhang, C. Li, M. Piszcz, E. Coya, T. Rojo, L.M. Rodriguez-Martinez, M. Armand, Z. Zhou, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 797-815. [2] F. Ahmed, I. Choi, M.M. Rahman, H. Jang, T. Ryu, S. Yoon, L. Jin, Y. Jin, W. Kim, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019, 11, 34930-34938. [3] D.-M. Shin, J.E. Bachman, M.K. Taylor, J. Kamcev, J.G. Park, M.E. Ziebel, E. Velasquez, N.N. Jarenwattananon, G.K. Sethi, Y. Cui, J.R. Long, Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 1905771.

31

Chen, Ziling, Qian Zhang, and Qijie Liang. "Carbon-Coatings Improve Performance of Li-Ion Battery." Nanomaterials 12, no. 11 (June 6, 2022): 1936. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano12111936.

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The development of lithium-ion batteries largely relies on the cathode and anode materials. In particular, the optimization of cathode materials plays an extremely important role in improving the performance of lithium-ion batteries, such as specific capacity or cycling stability. Carbon coating modifying the surface of cathode materials is regarded as an effective strategy that meets the demand of Lithium-ion battery cathodes. This work mainly reviews the modification mechanism and method of carbon coating, and summarizes the recent progress of carbon coating on some typical cathode materials (LiFePO4, LiMn2O4, LiCoO2, NCA (LiNiCoAlO2) and NCM (LiNiMnCoO2)). In addition, the limitations of the carbon coating on the cathode are also introduced. Suggestions on improving the effectiveness of carbon coating for future study are also presented.

32

Mukherjee, Ayan, Rosy, Tali Sharabani, Ilana Perelshtein, and Malachi Noked. "High-rate Na0.7Li2.3V2(PO4)2F3 hollow sphere cathode prepared via a solvothermal and electrochemical ion exchange approach for lithium ion batteries." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 8, no. 40 (2020): 21289–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d0ta07912j.

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Electrochemical ion exchange of Na⁺ with Li⁺ to design high rate Na_0.7Li_2.3V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ hollow spherical cathode for lithium ion batteries.

33

Liu, Tiancheng, Qiyang Hu, Xinhai Li, Lei Tan, Guochun Yan, Zhixing Wang, Huajun Guo, Yong Liu, Yuping Wu, and Jiexi Wang. "Lithiophilic Ag/Li composite anodes via a spontaneous reaction for Li nucleation with a reduced barrier." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 7, no. 36 (2019): 20911–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9ta05335b.

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Lithiophilic silver/lithium composite anodes are synthesized via a spontaneous displacement reaction to settle the problems of lithium metal anodes by regulating Li nucleation and homogenizing Li-ion flux.

34

Sides, Charles R., Naichao Li, Charles J. Patrissi, Bruno Scrosati, and Charles R. Martin. "Nanoscale Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries." MRS Bulletin 27, no. 8 (August 2002): 604–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/mrs2002.195.

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AbstractTemplate synthesis is a versatile nanomaterial fabrication method used to make monodisperse nanoparticles of a variety of materials including metals, semiconductors, carbons, and polymers. We have used the template method to prepare nanostructured lithium-ion battery electrodes in which nanofibers or nanotubes of the electrode material protrude from an underlying current-collector surface like the bristles of a brush. Nanostructured electrodes of this type composed of carbon, LiMn2O4, V2O5, tin, TiO2, and TiS2 have been prepared. In all cases, the nanostructured electrode showed dramatically improved rate capabilities relative to thin-film control electrodes composed of the same material. The rate capabilities are improved because the distance that Li+ must diffuse in the solid state (the current- and power-limiting step in Li-ion battery electrodes) is significantly smaller in the nanostructured electrode. For example, in a nanofiber-based electrode, the distance that Li+ must diffuse is restricted to the radius of the fiber, which may be as small as 50 nm. Recent developments in template-prepared nanostructured electrodes are reviewed.

35

He, Zhan Jun, Xin Ju Hu, Si Zhong Di, Bing Bing Song, and Chang Fu Yang. "Thermal Design and Simulation for Lithium-Ion Power Battery Pack Assembly." Advanced Materials Research 605-607 (December 2012): 77–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.605-607.77.

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At present, the power of electric vehicle mainly relies on li-ion battery module. The temperature field of lithium-ion power battery pack assembly is an important factor which affects the security and reliability of EV when the vehicle is running [1,2]. In this paper, by simulating the typical discharge condition of Li-ion battery module, it is realized that the detailed temperature field and air flow field of battery pack assembly. According to the results of thermal analysis, li-ion battery module layout can be improved, and the high-temperature region of battery pack assembly can be found clearly

36

Li, Hong. "Forty years of research on solid metallic lithium batteries: an interview with Liquan Chen." National Science Review 4, no. 1 (January 1, 2017): 106–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nww092.

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Abstract Li-ion batteries were first commercialized by Sony in 1991 and have been used widely in portable electronic devices, electric vehicles and grid applications. Although Li-ion batteries have achieved a phenomenon commercial success and become so pervasive and indispensable in our modern life, their development has been sluggish and fallen way behind the rapid advancement of electronic technologies. Batteries with a higher energy density than Li-ion batteries are highly desired for many emerging applications. It is widely recognized that solid metallic lithium batteries (SMLBs) are one of the most promising candidate technologies. The first research on SMLBs was reported by Michel Armand in 1978. At almost the same time, Liquan Chen studied lithium-ion conductors in Germany with Werner Weppner in 1977. When he came back to China in 1978, he initiated and pioneered the research on SMLBs and related fundamental studies of solid-state ionics in China for the first time. In this interview, Prof. Chen reviews his work of the past 40 years in solid lithium batteries and lithium-ion batteries, and the renaissance and future prospects of SMLBs.

37

Viugin, Nikolay A., Vladimir A. Khokhlov, Irina D. Zakiryanova, Vasiliy N. Dokutovich, and Boris D. Antonov. "Molten Chlorides as the Precursors to Modify the Ionic Composition and Properties of LiNbO3 Single Crystal and Fine Powders." Materials 15, no. 10 (May 16, 2022): 3551. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15103551.

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Modifying lithium niobate cation composition improves not only the functional properties of the acousto- and optoelectronic materials as well as ferroelectrics but elevates the protonic transfer in LiNbO3-based electrolytes of the solid oxide electrochemical devices. Molten chlorides and other thermally stable salts are not considered practically as the precursors to synthesize and modify oxide compounds. This article presents and discusses the results of an experimental study of the full or partial heterovalent substitution of lithium ion in nanosized LiNbO3 powders and in the surface layer of LiNbO3 single crystal using molten salt mixtures containing calcium, lead, and rare-earth metals (REM) chlorides as the precursors. The special features of heterovalent ion exchange in chloride melts are revealed such as hetero-epitaxial cation exchange at the interface PbCl2-containing melt/lithium niobate single crystal; the formation of Li(1−x) Ca(x/2)V(x/2)Li+ NbO3 solid solutions with cation vacancies as an intermediate product of the reaction of heterovalent substitution of lithium ion by calcium in LiNbO3 powders; the formation of lanthanide orthoniobates with a tetragonal crystal structure such as scheelite as the result of lithium niobate interaction with trichlorides of rare-earth elements. It is shown that the fundamental properties of ion-modifiers (ion radius, nominal charge), temperature, and duration of isothermal treatment determine the products’ chemical composition and the rate of heterovalent substitution of Li+-ion in lithium niobate.

38

Deng, Zhongyi, and Donald E. Irish. "A Raman spectral study of solvation and ion association in the systems LiAsF6/CH3CO2CH3 and LiAsF6/HCO2CH3." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 69, no. 11 (November 1, 1991): 1766–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v91-259.

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The structure of the solvated lithium cation in methyl acetate (MA) solutions has been investigated using Raman spectroscopy. Two bands at 844 and 864 cm−1 have been assigned to two different types of MA: the former is from the bulk solvent and the latter arises from MA molecules solvating the lithium cation. From measurement of changes in intensity of these bands with increasing salt concentration a solvation number of four for Li+ in MA has been inferred. Changes in the Raman bands at ca. 1740 cm−1 suggest that solvation occurs through the carbonyl group. Evidence for contact ion pairing between Li+ and AsF6− is also presented. An equilibrium between solvent-shared ion pairs and contact ion pairs is proposed for which an equilibrium constant is estimated. The system LiAsF6/methyl formate (MF) is similar in structure. Key words: Raman, ion pair formation, lithium and hexafluoroarsenate ions, methyl acetate and formate, lithium ion solvation.

39

Zhou, Di, Hongtao Yin, Ping Fu, Xianhua Song, Wenbin Lu, Lili Yuan, and Zuoxian Fu. "Prognostics for State of Health of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Gaussian Process Regression." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2018 (2018): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8358025.

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Accurate estimation and prediction of the lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries’ performance has important theoretical and practical significance to make better use of lithium-ion battery and to avoid unnecessary losses. State of health (SOH) estimation is used as a qualitative measure of the capability of a lithium-ion battery to store and deliver energy in a system. To evaluate and predict the SOH of batteries, the Gaussian process regression with neural network (GPRNN) as its variance function is proposed. Experimental results confirm that the proposed method can be effectively applied to Li-ion battery monitoring and prognostics by quantitative comparison with basic GPR, combination LGPFR, combination QGPFR, and the multiscale GPR (SMK-GPR, P-MGPR, and SE-MGPR). The criteria of RMSE and MAPE of the proposed three models are reduced significantly compared to those of other existing methods.

40

Sharma, Subash, Tetsuya Osugi, Sahar Elnobi, Shinsuke Ozeki, Balaram Paudel Jaisi, Golap Kalita, Claudio Capiglia, and Masaki Tanemura. "Synthesis and Characterization of Li-C Nanocomposite for Easy and Safe Handling." Nanomaterials 10, no. 8 (July 29, 2020): 1483. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10081483.

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Metallic lithium (Li) anode batteries have attracted considerable attention due to their high energy density value. However, metallic Li is highly reactive and flammable, which makes Li anode batteries difficult to develop. In this work, for the first time, we report the synthesis of metallic Li-embedded carbon nanocomposites for easy and safe handling by a scalable ion beam-based method. We found that vertically standing conical Li-C nanocomposite (Li-C NC), sometimes with a nanofiber on top, can be grown on a graphite foil commonly used for the anodes of lithium-ion batteries. Metallic Li embedded inside the carbon matrix was found to be highly stable under ambient conditions, making transmission electron microscopy (TEM) characterization possible without any sophisticated inert gas-based sample fabrication apparatus. The developed ion beam-based fabrication technique was also extendable to the synthesis of stable Li-C NC films under ambient conditions. In fact, no significant loss of crystallinity or change in morphology of the Li-C film was observed when subjected to heating at 300 °C for 10 min. Thus, these ion-induced Li-C nanocomposites are concluded to be interesting as electrode materials for future Li-air batteries.

41

Loaiza, Laura C., Elodie Salager, Nicolas Louvain, Athmane Boulaoued, Antonella Iadecola, Patrik Johansson, Lorenzo Stievano, Vincent Seznec, and Laure Monconduit. "Understanding the lithiation/delithiation mechanism of Si1−xGex alloys." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5, no. 24 (2017): 12462–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7ta02100c.

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Ge_xSi_1−x alloys have demonstrated synergetic effects as lithium-ion battery (LIB) anodes because silicon brings its high lithium storage capacity and germanium its better electronic and Li ion conductivity.

42

Ivan, Md Nahian Al Subri, Sujit Devnath, Rethwan Faiz, and Kazi Firoz Ahmed. "Reliability Analysis of Different Cell Configurations of Lithium ion battery Pack." AIUB Journal of Science and Engineering (AJSE) 18, no. 2 (August 31, 2019): 49–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.53799/ajse.v18i2.40.

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To infer and predict the reliability of the remaining useful life of a lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is very significant in the sectors associated with power source proficiency. As an energy source of electric vehicles (EV), Li-ion battery is getting attention due to its lighter weight and capability of storing higher energy. Problems with the reliability arises while li-ion batteries of higher voltages are required. As in this case several li-ion cells areconnected in series and failure of one cell may cause the failure of the whole battery pack. In this paper, Firstly, the capacity degradation of li-ion cells after each cycle is observed and secondly with the help of MATLAB 2016 a mathematical model is developed using Weibull Probability Distribution and Exponential Distribution to find the reliability of different types of cell configurations of a non-redundant li-ion battery pack. The mathematical model shows that the parallel-series configuration of cells is more reliable than the series configuration of cells. The mathematical model also shows that if the discharge rate (C-rate) remains constant; there could be an optimum number for increasing the cells in the parallel module of a parallel-series onfiguration of cells of a non-redundant li-ion battery pack; after which only increasing the number of cells in parallel module doesn’t increase the reliability of the whole battery pack significantly.

43

Otong, Muhamad. "Perancangan Modular Baterai Lithium Ion (Li-Ion) untuk Beban Lampu LED." Setrum : Sistem Kendali-Tenaga-elektronika-telekomunikasi-komputer 8, no. 2 (December 31, 2019): 260. http://dx.doi.org/10.36055/setrum.v8i2.6808.

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44

Akram, Muhammad Zain, Arjun Kumar Thapa, Babajide Patrick Ajayi, Veerendra Atla, Jian Ru Gong, and Mahendra Sunkara. "A new nanowire-based lithium hexaoxotungstate anode for lithium-ion batteries." Nanoscale Advances 1, no. 7 (2019): 2727–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9na00217k.

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45

Rahn, Johanna, Benjamin Ruprecht, Paul Heitjans, and Harald Schmidt. "Lithium Diffusion in Li-Rich and Li-Poor Amorphous Lithium Niobate." Defect and Diffusion Forum 363 (May 2015): 62–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ddf.363.62.

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The diffusion of lithium in amorphous lithium niobate layers is studied as a function of temperature between 293 and 423 K. About 800 nm thick amorphous7LiNbO3layers were deposited on sapphire substrates by ion-beam sputtering. As a tracer source about 20 nm thin6LiNbO3layers were sputtered on top. Isotope depth profile analysis is done by secondary ion mass spectrometry. Compared are amorphous samples which show a ratio of Li : Nb < 1 (Li-poor) and of Li : Nb > 1 (Li-rich) close to the stoichiometric composition of Li : Nb = 1 for crystalline LiNbO3. The results reveal that the diffusivities of both types of samples obey the Arrhenius law with an activation enthalpy of 0.70 eV and 0.83 eV, respectively. The diffusivities of the sample containing a higher amount of Li are lower by a factor of about two to ten. This demonstrates that variation of the Li content in amorphous samples over the stability range of the crystalline LiNbO3phase has only a modest influence on diffusivities and activation enthalpies.

46

Yue, Yunrui, Song Li, Xinbing Cheng, Jinhong Wei, Fanzheng Zeng, Xiang Zhou, and Jianhua Yang. "Effects of temperature on the ohmic internal resistance and energy loss of Lithium-ion batteries under millisecond pulse discharge." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2301, no. 1 (July 1, 2022): 012014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2301/1/012014.

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Abstract Battery energy storage technology has a promising future in the field of compact high-power pulse drivers due to its high energy storage density. In this paper, three types of high-performance lithium batteries, such as lithium titanate (LTO) battery, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, and Ni,Co,Al (NCR) ternary lithium-ion battery, have been studied in different ambient temperatures by using DC internal resistance measurement method. The result shows that the ohmic internal resistance of lithium batteries increases when the temperature drops. When the temperature is above -30 °C, the ohmic internal resistances of the three types of battery are nearly identical. At -50 °C, the ohmic internal resistances of LFP battery and LTO battery are about 83 mΩ and 151 mΩ, respectively, and the ohmic internal resistance of NCR li-ion battery increases by one order of magnitude. The energy loss from LTO battery and LFP battery during pulse discharge is similar. In the temperature range of -30 °C to 50 °C, the energy loss of NCR li-ion battery pulse discharge is the largest. At -50 °C, the energy loss of NCR li-ion battery is the least.

47

Fanah, Selorm Joy, Ming Yu, Ashfia Huq, and Farshid Ramezanipour. "Insight into lithium-ion mobility in Li2La(TaTi)O7." Journal of Materials Chemistry A 6, no. 44 (2018): 22152–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ta05187a.

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48

Karabelli, Duygu, and Kai Peter Birke. "Feasible Energy Density Pushes of Li-Metal vs. Li-Ion Cells." Applied Sciences 11, no. 16 (August 18, 2021): 7592. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11167592.

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Li-metal batteries are attracting a lot of attention nowadays. However, they are merely an attempt to enhance energy densities by employing a negative Li-metal electrode. Usually, when a Li-metal cell is charged, a certain amount of sacrificial lithium must be added, because irreversible losses per cycle add up much more unfavourably compared to conventional Li-ion cells. When liquid electrolytes instead of solid ones are used, additional electrolyte must also be added because both the lithium of the positive electrode and the liquid electrolyte are consumed during each cycle. Solid electrolytes may present a clever solution to the issue of saving sacrificial lithium and electrolyte, but their additional intrinsic weight and volume must be considered. This poses the important question of if and how much energy density can be gained in realistic scenarios if a switch from Li-ion to rechargeable Li-metal cells is anticipated. This paper calculates various scenarios assuming typical losses per cycle and reveals future e-mobility as a potential application of Li-metal cells. The paper discusses the trade-off if, considering only the push for energy density, liquid electrolytes can become a feasible option in large Li-metal batteries vs. the solid-state approach. This also includes the important aspect of cost.

49

Buga, Mihaela, Alexandru Rizoiu, Constantin Bubulinca, Silviu Badea, Mihai Balan, Alexandru Ciocan, and Alin Chitu. "Study of LiFePO4 Electrode Morphology for Li-Ion Battery Performance." Revista de Chimie 69, no. 3 (April 15, 2018): 549–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.37358/rc.18.3.6146.

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The paper focuses on the development of lithium-ion battery cathode based on lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). Li-ion battery cathodes were manufactured using the new Battery R&D Production Line from ROM-EST Centre, the first and only facility in Romania, capable of fabricating the industry standard 18650 lithium-ion cells, customized pouch cells and CR2032 cells. The cathode configuration contains acetylene black (AB), LiFePO4, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) as binder and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as solvent. X-ray diffraction measurements and SEM-EDS analysis were conducted to obtain structural and morphological information for the as-prepared electrodes.

50

Gärtner, Stefanie, Tobias Gärtner, Ruth-Maria Gschwind, and Nikolaus Korber. "About the polymorphism of [Li(C4H8O)3]I: crystal structures of trigonal and tetragonal polymorphs." Acta Crystallographica Section E Structure Reports Online 70, no. 12 (November 21, 2014): 555–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s160053681402529x.

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Two new trigonal and tetragonal polymorphs of the title compound, iodidotris(tetrahydrofuran-κO)lithium, are presented, which both include the isolated ion pair Li(THF)3+·I−. One Li—I ion contact and three tetrahydrofuran (THF) molecules complete the tetrahedral coordination of the lithium cation. The three-dimensional arrangement in the two polymorphs differs notably. In the trigonal structure, the ion pair is located on a threefold rotation axis of space groupP-3 and only one THF molecule is present in the asymmetric unit. In the crystal, strands of ion pairs parallel to [001] are observed with an eclipsed conformation of the THF molecules relative to the Li...I axis of two adjacent ion pairs. In contrast, the tetragonal polymorph shows a much larger unit cell in which all atoms are located on general positions of the space groupI41cd. The resulting three-dimensional arrangement shows helical chains of ion pairs parallel to [001]. Apart from van der Waals contacts, no remarkable intermolecular forces are present between the isolated ion pairs in both structures.

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