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Journal articles on the topic 'Aposematism'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 July 2025

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1

Santos, Juan C., Margarita Baquero, César Barrio-Amorós, et al. "Aposematism increases acoustic diversification and speciation in poison frogs." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1796 (2014): 20141761. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1761.

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Multimodal signals facilitate communication with conspecifics during courtship, but they can also alert eavesdropper predators. Hence, signallers face two pressures: enticing partners to mate and avoiding detection by enemies. Undefended organisms with limited escape abilities are expected to minimize predator recognition over mate attraction by limiting or modifying their signalling. Alternatively, organisms with anti-predator mechanisms such as aposematism (i.e. unprofitability signalled by warning cues) might elaborate mating signals as a consequence of reduced predation. We hypothesize tha

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2

Yamazaki, Yuki, Emilio Pagani-Núñez, Teiji Sota, and Craig R. A. Barnett. "The truth is in the detail: predators attack aposematic prey with less aggression than other prey types." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 131, no. 2 (2020): 332–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa119.

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Abstract Aposematic organisms are often unprofitable to predators (e.g. because of defensive chemicals) which they advertise with a conspicuous signal (e.g. bright and conspicuous colour signals). Aposematism is thought to reduce predation of prey because the colour signal increases the ability of predators to learn, recognize and remember the prey’s defensive properties. The efficacy of aposematism has been extensively documented in laboratory studies, although its benefits seem to be harder to demonstrate in the field. In this study, we compared the levels of partial and overall predation am

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3

de Araujo Miles, Mallory, Mikayla Joyce Johnson, Adam M. M. Stuckert, and Kyle Summers. "A histological analysis of coloration in the Peruvian mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator)." PeerJ 11 (June 30, 2023): e15533. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15533.

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Aposematism continues to be a phenomenon of central interest in evolutionary biology. The life history of the mimic poison frog, Ranitomeya imitator, relies heavily on aposematism. In order for aposematic signals to be effective, predators must be able to learn to avoid the associated phenotype. However, in R. imitator, aposematism is associated with four different color phenotypes that mimic a complex of congeneric species occurring across the mimic frog’s geographic range. Investigations of the underlying mechanics of color production in these frogs can provide insights into how and why thes

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4

Skelhorn, John, and Candy Rowe. "Avian predators taste–reject aposematic prey on the basis of their chemical defence." Biology Letters 2, no. 3 (2006): 348–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0483.

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Avian predators learn to avoid defended insects on the basis of their conspicuous warning coloration. In many aposematic species, the level of chemical defence varies, with some individuals being more defended than others. Sequestration and production of defence chemicals is often costly and therefore less defended individuals enjoy the benefits of the warning signal without paying the full costs of chemical production. This is a fundamental theoretical problem for the evolutionary stability of aposematism, since less defended individuals appear to be at a selective advantage. However, if pred

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Song, Woncheol, Sang-im Lee, and Piotr G. Jablonski. "Evolution of switchable aposematism: insights from individual-based simulations." PeerJ 8 (April 10, 2020): e8915. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8915.

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Some defended prey animals can switch on their normally hidden aposematic signals. This switching may occur in reaction to predators’ approach (pre-attack signals) or attack (post-attack signals). Switchable aposematism has been relatively poorly studied, but we can expect that it might bring a variety of benefits to an aposmetic organism. First, the switching could startle the predators (deimatism). Second, it could facilitate aversive learning. Third, it could minimize exposure or energetic expense, as the signal can be switched off. These potential benefits might offset costs of developing,

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6

Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola, Ariana Weldon, Muhammad Ali Imron, et al. "Venom in Furs: Facial Masks as Aposematic Signals in a Venomous Mammal." Toxins 11, no. 2 (2019): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11020093.

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The function of colouration in animals includes concealment, communication and signaling, such as the use of aposematism as a warning signal. Aposematism is unusual in mammals, and exceptions help us to understand its ecology and evolution. The Javan slow loris is a highly territorial venomous mammal that has a distinctive facial mask and monochromatic vision. To help understand if they use aposematism to advertise their venom to conspecifics or predators with different visual systems, we studied a population in Java, Indonesia. Using ImageJ, we selected colours from the facial masks of 58 ind

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7

Rojas, Bibiana, Janne Valkonen, and Ossi Nokelainen. "Aposematism." Current Biology 25, no. 9 (2015): R350—R351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.015.

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8

Barnett, James B., Innes C. Cuthill, and Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel. "Distance-dependent aposematism and camouflage in the cinnabar moth caterpillar ( Tyria jacobaeae , Erebidae)." Royal Society Open Science 5, no. 2 (2018): 171396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171396.

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Defended prey often use distinctive, conspicuous, colours to advertise their unprofitability to potential predators (aposematism). These warning signals are frequently made up of salient, high contrast, stripes which have been hypothesized to increase the speed and accuracy of predator avoidance learning. Limitations in predator visual acuity, however, mean that these patterns cannot be resolved when viewed from a distance, and adjacent patches of colour will blend together (pattern blending). We investigated how saliency changes at different viewing distances in the toxic and brightly coloure

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9

Weldon, Paul J. "Chemical aposematism." Chemoecology 23, no. 4 (2013): 201–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00049-013-0140-3.

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10

Camazine, Scott. "Olfactory aposematism." Journal of Chemical Ecology 11, no. 9 (1985): 1289–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01024116.

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11

Stevens, Martin, and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Linking the evolution and form of warning coloration in nature." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1728 (2011): 417–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1932.

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Many animals are toxic or unpalatable and signal this to predators with warning signals (aposematism). Aposematic appearance has long been a classical system to study predator–prey interactions, communication and signalling, and animal behaviour and learning. The area has received considerable empirical and theoretical investigation. However, most research has centred on understanding the initial evolution of aposematism, despite the fact that these studies often tell us little about the form and diversity of real warning signals in nature. In contrast, less attention has been given to the mec

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12

Caldwell, Janalee, Laurie Vitt, and William Cooper. "Conspicuousness and vestigial escape behaviour by two dendrobatid frogs, Dendrobates auratus and Oophaga pumilio." Behaviour 146, no. 3 (2009): 325–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853909x410946.

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AbstractAposematic prey are thought to move slowly and openly near predators, but exhibit reduced escape behaviour. We studied conspicuousness and escape by aposematic poison frogs (Dendrobates auratus and Oophaga pumilio). In circles of leaf litter, observers detected poison frogs quickly. Flight initiation distance (FID, predator-prey distance when escape begins) increases with approach speed in non-cryptic palatable prey, but not for frogs in clearings, which permitted close approach. On trails frogs moved slowly into forest and FID in D. auratus increased with approach speed. Distance from

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13

Wiley, James C. "Psychological Aposematism: An Evolutionary Analysis of Suicide." Biological Theory 15, no. 4 (2020): 226–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13752-020-00353-8.

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AbstractThe evolutionary advantage of psychological phenomena can be gleaned by comparing them with physical traits that have proven adaptive in other organisms. The present article provides a novel evolutionary explanation of suicide in humans by comparing it with aposematism in insects. Aposematic insects are brightly colored, making them conspicuous to predators. However, such insects are equipped with toxins that cause a noxious reaction when eaten. Thus, the death of a few insects conditions predators to avoid other insects of similar coloration. Analogously, human suicides may increase t

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14

Skelhorn, John, and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Avian predators attack aposematic prey more forcefully when they are part of an aggregation." Biology Letters 2, no. 4 (2006): 488–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2006.0522.

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Defended insects often advertise their unprofitability to potential predators using conspicuous aposematic coloration. Many aposematic insects are also gregarious, and it has been suggested that the aggregation of defended prey may have facilitated the evolution of aposematic coloration. Empirical studies have demonstrated that birds are more wary of aggregated aposematic prey, and learn to avoid them more quickly than solitary prey. However, many aposematic insects survive being attacked by birds, and the effect of aggregation on post-attack survival has not previously been investigated. Usin

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15

Loeffler-Henry, Karl, Changku Kang, and Thomas N. Sherratt. "Evolutionary transitions from camouflage to aposematism: Hidden signals play a pivotal role." Science 379, no. 6637 (2023): 1136–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ade5156.

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The initial evolution of warning signals in unprofitable prey, termed aposematism, is often seen as a paradox because any new conspicuous mutant would be easier to detect than its cryptic conspecifics and not readily recognized by naïve predators as defended. One possibility is that permanent aposematism first evolved through species using hidden warning signals, which are only exposed to would-be predators on encounter. Here, we present a large-scale analysis of evolutionary transitions in amphibian antipredation coloration and demonstrate that the evolutionary transition from camouflage to a

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16

Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "Aposematism and bioluminescence." Animal Behaviour 37 (February 1989): 339–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90126-7.

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17

Lev-Yadun, Simcha. "Visual-, Olfactory-, and Nectar-Taste-Based Flower Aposematism." Plants 13, no. 3 (2024): 391. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants13030391.

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Florivory, i.e., flower herbivory, of various types is common and can strongly reduce plant fitness. Flowers suffer two very different types of herbivory: (1) the classic herbivory of consuming tissues and (2) nectar theft. Unlike the non-reversibility of consumed tissues, nectar theft, while potentially reducing a plant’s fitness by lowering its attraction to pollinators, can, in various cases, be fixed quickly by the production of additional nectar. Therefore, various mechanisms to avoid or reduce florivory have evolved. Here, I focus on one of the flowers’ defensive mechanisms, aposematism,

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18

Rojas, Bibiana, Jennifer Devillechabrolle, and John A. Endler. "Paradox lost: variable colour-pattern geometry is associated with differences in movement in aposematic frogs." Biology Letters 10, no. 6 (2014): 20140193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2014.0193.

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Aposematic signal variation is a paradox: predators are better at learning and retaining the association between conspicuousness and unprofitability when signal variation is low. Movement patterns and variable colour patterns are linked in non-aposematic species: striped patterns generate illusions of altered speed and direction when moving linearly, affecting predators' tracking ability; blotched patterns benefit instead from unpredictable pauses and random movement. We tested whether the extensive colour-pattern variation in an aposematic frog is linked to movement, and found that individual

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19

Skočková, Lenka, Barbora Ďurajková, and Ivan Hadrián Tuf. "Predator responses to artificial aposematic and cryptic colouration in terrestrial isopods (Isopoda, Oniscidea)." ZooKeys 1225 (February 5, 2025): 141–53. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1225.121574.

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Aposematism is a distinctive or warning signal that provides the animal with protection against a potential predator. Aposematic colouration is easier for a predator to remember and to avoid a dangerous and/or unpalatable prey in the future. We investigated whether distinctive colouration has an aposematic function in terrestrial isopods. The common rough woodlice (Porcellio scaber) were used as a model species of terrestrial isopods and the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) as a predatory species. To imitate the distinctive colouration on isopods we marked their dorsal plates with yellow

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20

Toledo, Luís Felipe, and Célio F. B. Haddad. "Colors and Some Morphological Traits as Defensive Mechanisms in Anurans." International Journal of Zoology 2009 (2009): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/910892.

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Anurans may be brightly colored or completely cryptic. Generally, in the former situation, we are dealing with aposematism, and the latter is an example of camouflage. However, these are only simple views of what such colorations really mean and which defensive strategy is implied. For instance, a brightly colored frog may be part of a mimicry ring, which could be either Batesian, Müllerian, or Browerian. These are only examples of the diversity of color-usage systems as defensive strategies. Unfortunately, reports on the use of colors as defensive mechanisms are widespread in the available li

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21

Marek, Paul, Daniel Papaj, Justin Yeager, Sergio Molina, and Wendy Moore. "Bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes." Current Biology 21, no. 18 (2011): R680—R681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.012.

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22

Caro, Tim, and Graeme Ruxton. "Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 34, no. 7 (2019): 595–604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2019.02.015.

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23

Skočková, Lenka, Barbora Ďurajková, and Ivan Hadrián Tuf. "Predator responses to artificial aposematic and cryptic colouration in terrestrial isopods (Isopoda, Oniscidea)." ZooKeys 1225 (February 5, 2025): 141–53. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1225.121574.

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Aposematism is a distinctive or warning signal that provides the animal with protection against a potential predator. Aposematic colouration is easier for a predator to remember and to avoid a dangerous and/or unpalatable prey in the future. We investigated whether distinctive colouration has an aposematic function in terrestrial isopods. The common rough woodlice (<i>Porcellio scaber</i>) were used as a model species of terrestrial isopods and the Italian wall lizard (<i>Podarcis siculus</i>) as a predatory species. To imitate the distinctive colouration on isopods we marked their dorsal plat

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24

Hedley, Esme, and Tim Caro. "Aposematism and mimicry in birds." Ibis 164, no. 2 (2021): 606–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ibi.13025.

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25

Härlin, Carina, and Mikael Härlin. "Towards a historization of aposematism." Evolutionary Ecology 17, no. 2 (2003): 197–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1023047930360.

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26

Holen, Øistein Haugsten, and Thomas Owens Svennungsen. "Aposematism and the Handicap Principle." American Naturalist 180, no. 5 (2012): 629–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/667890.

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27

Barnett, James B., Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel, and Innes C. Cuthill. "Aposematism: balancing salience and camouflage." Biology Letters 12, no. 8 (2016): 20160335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0335.

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Aposematic signals are often characterized by high conspicuousness. Larger and brighter signals reinforce avoidance learning, distinguish defended from palatable prey and are more easily memorized by predators. Conspicuous signalling, however, has costs: encounter rates with naive, specialized or nutritionally stressed predators are likely to increase. It has been suggested that intermediate levels of aposematic conspicuousness can evolve to balance deterrence and detectability, especially for moderately defended species. The effectiveness of such signals, however, has not yet been experimenta

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Lev-Yadun, Simcha. "Carrion-based plant aposematism: Do plants use visual carrion-based aposematism to deter herbivores?" Biochemist 36, no. 5 (2014): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio03605036.

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Insect carrion and trapped live insects are attached to the surfaces of many plant species that have sticky or hooked trichomes or are sticky following the exudation of latex or resin when wounded. Direct physical/chemical defences by trichomes, resins and latex are well known. In addition, such attached carrion is known to attract predators that indirectly defend the plants against further insect attacks. I propose that, in addition, the attached dead or trapped living insects may serve as billboards: (i) cueing visually to other herbivores that the plants are already occupied; and (ii) cuein

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Barbieri, Giacomo, Andrea Costa, and Sebastiano Salvidio. "Is the Northern Spectacled Salamander Salamandrina perspicillata aposematic? A preliminary test with clay models." Acta Herpetologica 16, no. 2 (2021): 123–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.36253/a_h-10229.

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Aposematism is a visual communication system in which bright and contrasted coloured prey warn predators about their unprofitability. The Northern Spectacled Salamander Salamandrina perspicillata, a small terrestrial salamander endemic to Italy, displays a uniform dark dorsal colouration and a contrasted ventral side in which a bright red colour is displayed by coiling the tail over the body. In amphibians, this behaviour, known as “Unkenreflex”, is usually considered to be aposematic. In this study, we used realistic plasticine replicas to test this aposematic hypothesis in the Northern Spect

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Bertuzzi, Tatiane, David Santos de Freitas, Luiz Liberato Costa Corrêa, et al. "DOES APOSEMATIC COLORATION REDUCE PREDATION RISK IN SNAKES? A SHORT PERIOD EXPERIMENT USING PLASTICINE SNAKE MODELS." Revista de Ciências Ambientais 14, no. 2 (2020): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.18316/rca.v14i2.6137.

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Aposematism in an anti-predation mechanism that occurs when animals exhibit conspicuous signals, which are often of a contrasting color patterns, to alert potential predators of their unpalatability or toxicity. This study aims to test (in a short period) the effectiveness of aposematic coloration by comparing the predatory attack upon snakes models with and without an alert coloration on the body. To simulate snakes, we made 80 greenish plasticine snake models. Half of the models had a red strip on the dorsal part of the body, imitating an aposematic coloration. The other half of the models h

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Blanchette, Annelise, Noémi Becza, and Ralph A. Saporito. "Escape behaviour of aposematic (Oophaga pumilio) and cryptic (Craugastor sp.) frogs in response to simulated predator approach." Journal of Tropical Ecology 33, no. 2 (2017): 165–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467417000037.

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Abstract:Crypsis and aposematism are common antipredator strategies that can each be coupled with behaviours that maximize predator deterrence or avoidance. Cryptic animals employ camouflage to conceal themselves within their environment and generally rely on immobility to avoid detection by predators. Alternatively, aposematic animals tend to rely on an association between conspicuous colouration and secondary defence to deter potential predators, and tend to exhibit slow movements in response to predators. The goal of the present study was to determine how cryptic Craugastor sp. and aposemat

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Marek, Paul E., and Wendy Moore. "Discovery of a glowing millipede in California and the gradual evolution of bioluminescence in Diplopoda." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 20 (2015): 6419–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500014112.

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The rediscovery of the Californian millipede Xystocheir bistipita surprisingly reveals that the species is bioluminescent. Using molecular phylogenetics, we show that X. bistipita is the evolutionary sister group of Motyxia, the only genus of New World bioluminescent millipedes. We demonstrate that bioluminescence originated in the group’s most recent common ancestor and evolved by gradual, directional change through diversification. Because bioluminescence in Motyxia has been experimentally demonstrated to be aposematic, forewarning of the animal’s cyanide-based toxins, these results are cont

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Barnett, James B., Constantine Michalis, Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel, and Innes C. Cuthill. "Distance-dependent defensive coloration in the poison frog Dendrobates tinctorius, Dendrobatidae." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 25 (2018): 6416–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1800826115.

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Poison dart frogs provide classic examples of warning signals: potent toxins signaled by distinctive, conspicuous coloration. We show that, counterintuitively, the bright yellow and blue-black color of Dendrobates tinctorius (Dendrobatidae) also provides camouflage. Through computational modeling of predator vision, and a screen-based detection experiment presenting frogs at different spatial resolutions, we demonstrate that at close range the frog is highly detectable, but from a distance the colors blend together, forming effective camouflage. This result was corroborated with an in situ exp

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Barnett, James B., Innes C. Cuthill, and Nicholas E. Scott-Samuel. "Distance-dependent pattern blending can camouflage salient aposematic signals." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1858 (2017): 20170128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0128.

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The effect of viewing distance on the perception of visual texture is well known: spatial frequencies higher than the resolution limit of an observer's visual system will be summed and perceived as a single combined colour. In animal defensive colour patterns, distance-dependent pattern blending may allow aposematic patterns, salient at close range, to match the background to distant observers. Indeed, recent research has indicated that reducing the distance from which a salient signal can be detected can increase survival over camouflage or conspicuous aposematism alone. We investigated wheth

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Umbers, Kate D. L., Sebastiano De Bona, Thomas E. White, Jussi Lehtonen, Johanna Mappes, and John A. Endler. "Deimatism: a neglected component of antipredator defence." Biology Letters 13, no. 4 (2017): 20160936. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0936.

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Deimatic or ‘startle’ displays cause a receiver to recoil reflexively in response to a sudden change in sensory input. Deimatism is sometimes implicitly treated as a form of aposematism (unprofitability associated with a signal). However, the fundamental difference is, in order to provide protection, deimatism does not require a predator to have any learned or innate aversion. Instead, deimatism can confer a survival advantage by exploiting existing neural mechanisms in a way that releases a reflexive response in the predator. We discuss the differences among deimatism, aposematism, and forms

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Rowe, Candy, and Tim Guilford. "Aposematism: to be red or dead." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15, no. 7 (2000): 261–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(00)01897-8.

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Topper, Akiva, and Oren Kolodny. "Crossing the valley of non-intimidating conspicuousness: evolution of warning coloration through the lens of fitness landscapes." Evolution 77, no. 2 (2022): 335–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpac044.

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Abstract The initial evolution of conspicuous aposematism is a longstanding evolutionary paradox: while the benefits of conspicuousness in aposematic signals have been demonstrated, they rely on predators being familiar with the conspicuous signals and avoiding them. In a system dominated by naïve predators, the appearance of conspicuousness would be expected to increase detection and attack rate by the predators. Hence, it is unclear how such signals could become established in a naïve community. We suggest that this problem may usefully be framed in the terms of fitness landscapes, an idea u

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Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "The Evolution of Aposematism in Marine Gastropods." Evolution 45, no. 2 (1991): 449. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409680.

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Rosenberg, Gary. "Aposematism and Synergistic Selection in Marine Gastropods." Evolution 45, no. 2 (1991): 451. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409681.

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Sword, Gregory A., Stephen J. Simpson, Ould Taleb M. El Hadi, and Hans Wilps. "Density–dependent aposematism in the desert locust." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 267, no. 1438 (2000): 63–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.0967.

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Speed, Michael P., and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Aposematism: what should our starting point be?" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272, no. 1561 (2005): 431–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2968.

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MAPPES, J., N. MARPLES, and J. ENDLER. "The complex business of survival by aposematism." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, no. 11 (2005): 598–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.07.011.

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Guilford, Tim, and Innes Cuthill. "THE EVOLUTION OF APOSEMATISM IN MARINE GASTROPODS." Evolution 45, no. 2 (1991): 449–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04420.x.

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Rosenberg, Gary. "APOSEMATISM AND SYNERGISTIC SELECTION IN MARINE GASTROPODS." Evolution 45, no. 2 (1991): 451–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04421.x.

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Higginson, Andrew D., Michael P. Speed, and Graeme D. Ruxton. "Florivory as an Opportunity Benefit of Aposematism." American Naturalist 186, no. 6 (2015): 728–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/683463.

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Tullberg, Birgitta S., Sami Merilaita, and Christer Wiklund. "Aposematism and crypsis combined as a result of distance dependence: functional versatility of the colour pattern in the swallowtail butterfly larva." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272, no. 1570 (2005): 1315–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3079.

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The idea that an aposematic prey combines crypsis at a distance with conspicuousness close up was tested in an experiment using human subjects. We estimated detectability of the aposematic larva of the swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon , in two habitats, by presenting, on a touch screen, photographs taken at four different distances and measuring the time elapsed to discovery. The detectability of larvae in these images was compared with images that were manipulated, using existing colours either to increase or decrease conspicuousness. Detection time increased with distance for all colou

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Fȧndez, Eduardo I., Rodrigo Castillo, and Javiera R. Rocca. "Aposematism and unpalatability in the Chilean milkweed bug Oncopeltus (Erythrischius) miles (Blanchard, 1852) (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae): experiences with spiders (Arachnida: Araneae)." Arquivos Entomolóxicos 16 (December 13, 2016): 333–36. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12765396.

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Fȧndez, Eduardo I., Castillo, Rodrigo, Rocca, Javiera R. (2016): Aposematism and unpalatability in the Chilean milkweed bug Oncopeltus (Erythrischius) miles (Blanchard, 1852) (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae): experiences with spiders (Arachnida: Araneae). Arquivos Entomolóxicos 16: 333-336, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.12765396

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Grober, Matthew S. "Bioluminescent Aposematism: a reply to Guilford & cuthill." Animal Behaviour 37 (February 1989): 341–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90127-9.

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Speed, Michael P. "Can receiver psychology explain the evolution of aposematism?" Animal Behaviour 61, no. 1 (2001): 205–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1558.

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Weldon, Paul J. "Nuisance arthropods, nonhost odors, and vertebrate chemical aposematism." Naturwissenschaften 97, no. 5 (2010): 443–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00114-010-0665-z.

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