Academic literature on the topic 'Berry colour'

Spraying aqueous solutions of ethanol (between 2.5 and 10%, v/v) 1 month before harvest has been shown to increase berry weight of Cabernet Sauvignon by about 10% at harvest compared with controls sprayed with water. These observations were made in France and in Australia. The increase in berry weight was not associated with significant changes in total soluble solids. Additional measurements showed that spraying aqueous solutions of ethanol onto the berry surface 1 month before harvest had only small effects on the colour of berry skin extracts. In another trial, spraying ethanol at night 1 month earlier than other trials lead to a slight increase in the colour of the skin extracts. Optimisation of the spraying conditions is discussed.

A field trial was established in the Mildura district, to compare the effects of trellis type (single T, double T, Y and sloping T) on the yield and fruit quality of 5 table grape varieties (Cardinal, Waltham Cross, Italia, Ruby Seedless and Emperor). Over a 3-year period (1978-80), berry yield proved insensitive to trellis type for most varieties and also as the mean of all varieties in 2 years out of 3; however, the 3 larger trellises led to significantly (P<0.05) increased berry Brix levels, improved red colour levels on Cardinal, Ruby Seedless and Emperor grapes, and higher mean berry weights for Cardinal, Waltham Cross and Italia varieties, compared with grapes grown on the single T trellis. Since differences in Brix, red colour levels and berry size were, generally, not significantly different between the 3 large trellises tested, and the sloping T trellis is simpler and easier to erect, it is concluded that the sloping T trellis is a suitable, cost-effective trellis to use for the production of table grapes in the Murray Valley.

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Aims</strong>: This study aimed at assessing the functional linkage among seed traits (including seed number, seed weight), berry growth and berry sugar and acid concentration by adapting a mathematical growth function with parameters having biological importance.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods and results</strong>: The evolution of berry diameter of Cabernet- Sauvignon was satisfactorily fitted to a bi-phasic growth function with six parameters. Correlations between the parameters and berry characteristics, including time of skin color change, seed number, seed weight, final berry size and chemical composition, were analyzed. Results showed that berry growth within a bunch deviated according to seed number, which positively related to parameters describing diameter increment (D1) and initial growth rate (GRini) during the first rapid growth phase, but not related to any parameters involved in the second growth phase. The time of skin color change was negatively associated with mean seed weight, and coincided with growth parameter DABmax that denotes the time when growth rate is maximum during the second rapid growth phase. Sugar concentration was negatively correlated to final berry fresh weight (BFW), seed fresh weight (SFW), GRini and diameter increment during the second rapid growth phase (D2). Path analysis further revealed that the negative effects of SFW and D2 were indirectly mediated via BFW and GRini.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusions</strong>: We thus conclude that seed affects berry growth and exerts its influence only during the first growth phase via modifying the parameters D1 and GRini. The time of colour change is also affected by seed, and might not be a good indicator of growth restoration after the lag phase. Sugar concentration is linked to final berry size, specific berry growth parameters and seed weight, for the last mainly in an indirect manner.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Significance of the study</strong>: This study, integrating the analysis of berry growth and composition with a mathematical growth function, provides a valuable approach for deeper understanding of the functional associations among seed traits, berry growth and berry sugar and acid concentration at the berry level.</p>

Abstract Goji berry tea, a traditional herbal tea, is the main ate mode of goji berry in Asia, yet few studies in comparison with red goji berry tea and black goji berry tea are carried out. This study investigated the effects of water temperature and soak time on the colour, phytochemicals, and the antioxidant capacity [2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), and the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)] of two goji berry tea. A comparison of the bioactive compounds and antioxidant activities between black and red goji berry tea was conducted. Results showed that both red and black goji berry tea were rich in phytochemicals, giving high antioxidant ability. The levels of bioactive compounds and the antioxidant activity of the two goji berry tea increased as the increases in soak temperature and time. Black goji berry tea had higher phytochemicals and antioxidant property than those of red goji berry tea. Infused at 100° water for the same time, the levels of total polysaccharides (150 mg/100 ml), total polyphenols (238 mg/ml), and antioxidant capacity (550 μmol/100 ml) of black goji berry tea were 3.5, 2, and 5 times higher, respectively, in comparison with red goji berry tea. The results of this study demonstrate that hot drink of goji berry in China is a good habit and black goji berry tea may be a better choice.

With high nutritional value, goji berry is an important fruit for human nutrition and health. Goji berry cultivation is done widely in many countries, farming has become widespread in recent years in Turkey. In study grown goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) in Turkey are determined the physical and chemical characteristics of fruit (pH, titration acidity, dry matter content, ash content, water activity (aw) value, protein content, HMF content, total phenolic content, total sugar content, reducing sugar content, sucrose content, colour values, mineral contents, organic acid contents, amino acid contents and some plant hormone content). Goji berry fruits have pH value 5.18, titration acidity value 2.16%, dry matter content 89.40%, ash content 4.30%, water activity (aw) value 0.35, protein content 13.18%, HMF content 9.38 mg/kg, total phenolic content 9.05 mg GAE/g, total sugar content 59.26%, decreasing sugar content 57.35%, sucrose content 1.90%, L* value 40.33, a* value 22.97, b* value 33.00, C* value 40.21, H° value 55.15. In addition, the mineral content, organic acid content, amino acid content and some plant hormones of goji berry fruits were determined by analysis.

<p style="text-align: justify;">Vine water and nitrogen uptake can be assessed by means of physiological indicators in field conditions. In this study, pre-dawn leaf water potential (ψB) and stem water potential (ψT) were used to indicate vine water status of <em>Vitis vinifera</em> L cv. Merlot. Carbon isotope composition of grape sugar (ΔC13) was used as an integrative indicator of vine water deficit during the ripening period. Must assimilable nitrogen and leaf blade colour intensity, were used to assess vine nitrogen status. All of the three indicators of vine water status allowed a clear differentiation of vine water uptake conditions in the ten experimental plots. The indicators of vine nitrogen status showed more ambiguous results. Must assimilable nitrogen content did not only vary with vine nitrogen uptake, but also with yield. Leaf colour was more easy to interpret. Vine development and berry composition were more influenced by water uptake conditions than by vine nitrogen status. In 2000, which was a dry vintage in Bordeaux, water stress induced early growth slackening and a small berry size. Grapes contained more sugar, anthocyanin and total phenolics and less malic acid when water availability was low. On plots where water uptake conditions were similar, low vine nitrogen status increased berry potential.</p>

The study of phenolic maturity in Vitis vinifera L. requires a multidisciplinary approach to understand how the evolution of berry flavonoids and cell wall material influence the colour and the textures of red wine. This is a challenging issue which involves researchers of viticulture and enology, and the results of their work are of particular interest for the producers of high-quality red wines. This review reports the current knowledge regarding phenolic maturity, describing the sensorial traits of the different compounds, the evolution of berry flavonoids and the methodologies used to evaluate their characteristics. Finally, the role of cell wall material in influencing the extractability of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins was shown. By means of a critical review of the results, it can be hypothesised that prolonged ripening improved colour characteristics and mouthfeel properties, thanks to the higher amounts of extractable skin flavonoids associated with lower amounts of seed proanthocyanidins, and to the increased affinity of the cell wall material for the proanthocyanidins most involved in the perception of unpleasant astringency.

‘Crimson Seedless’ grape is an economically important cultivar of table grapes with superior eating characteristics due to firmer berries, colour and good flavour. The aim of this research project was to investigate the influence of infection of mild isolates of grapevine leafroll associated viruses (GLRaV) 3, 5, 9 and grapevine virus A (GVA) on berry colour, texture, SSC, TA and SSC: acid ratio in ‘Crimson Seedless’ grapes during maturation, ripening and cold storage life and quality. The infection of GLRaV and GVA viruses in clone 3215 (LRV3 (E) + LRV3 (RT-PCR) + GVA + LRV9 + LRV5), clone 3236 + 3215 (LRV3 (E) + GVA + LRV9 + LRV5) reduced berry colour, SSC, SSC: acid ratio; improved berry springiness and gumminess without influencing acidity during maturation and ripening in comparison to virus free control. During cold storage, berries from viral infected clones 3236 + 3215 and 3215 showed improvement in berry colour and SSC and retained good quality until 140 days of storage but, there was no effect on acidity.Berry hardness, gumminess, springiness and cohesiveness were also higher in viral infected clone 3236 + 3215 and clone 3215 than virus free control during cold storage. In sensory evaluation, virus infected clones 3236 + 3215 and 3215 obtained higher scores for berry crispiness, flavour and overall acceptability during cold storage when compared to the virus free controls. In conclusion, the infection of mild isolates of GLRaV and GVA viruses reduced berry colour and SSC but, improved berry textural properties in clones 3236 + 3215 and 3215 of ‘Crimson Seedless’ grapes during maturation and ripening. The quality parameters such as berry colour, textural properties, SSC, TA and sensory scores also remained acceptable for these clones till 140 days cold storage at 0 ± 0.5oC.

Dissertation presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biology (Molecular Genetics) at the Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
Anthocyanin content of grape berry skin determines the colour of grapes and wine. This trait has been widely studied due to its importance for grape and wine marketing and also due to the antioxidant properties of anthocyanins. In this thesis the variation of this trait was investigated within and between cultivars. DNA sequence variation and differential gene expression were studied among clones of the cultivars Aragonez and Negra Mole. Grape colour phenotyping was explored using different phenotyping approaches. Association mapping was performed for a sample of 149 cultivars and association mapping methodologies considering structure and relatedness in the sample were discussed. It was observed that no DNA sequence variation was present in the studied genomic regions between different clones of the same cultivar. Differential expression between Aragonez clones with contrasting values of skin total anthocyanin concentration was found to be very subtle not showing any significant results after correction for multiple testing and with two fold-change. However, relaxing statistical stringency and focusing on functional groups of interest (flavonoid metabolism and transcription factors) a list of 24 genes of interest was identified. This included two genes involved in the flavonoid metabolism, coding enzymes related with the glucosylation of flavonoids and transcription factors of the following families: Myb, Myc, zinc fingers, WRKY, DOF, GRAS, homeobox domain, YABBY, basic-leucine zipper, pathogenesisrelated and plant homeodomain finger.(...)
Financial support from Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, grant number SFRH / BD / 29379 / 2006 and ERA-PG 074B GRASP GRAPE WINE.

Le développement de la baie de raisin est un processus dynamique présentant une courbe de croissance sigmoïde avec deux phases de croissance séparée par une phase de latence. Il se caractérise par une biosynthèse coordonnée de métabolites primaires et secondaires. À la fin de la phase de latence, un phénomène appelé véraison se produit, au cours duquel le fruit commence à prendre de la couleur et le processus de maturation est initié. Les anthocyanes sont responsables de la coloration des baies et la régulation de leur biosynthèse été largement étudiée. Cependant, peu d'études ont porté sur la caractérisation métabolique et génétique de variétés de baies de couleurs fortement contrastées, dans un même fond génétique. En combinant la technologie RNAseq et des analyses métabolomiques, nous avons effectué une caractérisation comparée de deux variétés de raisin de table : Chimenti Globe (CG, rose pâle) et Red Globe (RG, rouge foncé). L'originalité de ce modèle est que CG a été généré à partir d'un événement de mutation spontanée de RG, dans un vignoble de production, permettant ainsi l’étude de la régulation de la biosynthèse des anthocyanes dans un même fond génétique. L'analyse du contenu métabolique des baies a démontré l'importance des stades de développement, de la véraison à la maturation, dans les deux variétés de raisin. En particulier, des différences marquées dans les concentrations de certains métabolites de la voie des phénylpropanoïdes (shikimate, UDP-glucose, phénylalanine) et du tréhalose-6-phosphate ont été mises en évidence en post-véraison. De plus, les différences entre les variétés étaient dues à des changements dans les métabolites liés à la biosynthèse du saccharose et de l'anthocyanine. Les baies de CG ne contenaient que des anthocyanines dihydroxylées (péonidine et cyanidine), et aucune quantité détectable d’anthocyanes trihydroxylées (malvidine, delphinidine et pétunidine), qui sont abondamment présentes dans les pellicules des baies de RG. Ceci explique le phénotype de couleur rose pâle des baies de CG. Une analyse transcriptomique globale par RNAseq montre que 109 gènes sont exprimés de façon différentielle chez CG, en comparaison avec RG, y compris de nombreux gènes liés au métabolisme des flavonoïdes. Notamment, 11 gènes codant pour des 3'5'-hydroxylases flavonoïde, une enzyme-clé pour la biosynthèse des anthocyanes trihydroxylées, sont réprimés dans CG. A partir de cette analyse, un gène candidat pour la régulation de la voie de biosynthèse des anthocyanes a été sélectionné : le gène Cytb5, qui code pour un cytochrome b5, non caractérisé à ce jour chez la Vigne. La surexpression de Cytb5 par transgénèse dans des vignes hybrides V. berlandieri x V. rupestris cv. 110R suggère fortement un rôle clé pour ce gène dans la régulation de la biosynthèse des anthocyanes chez la vigne : les embryons obtenus présentaient une forte coloration rouge, indiquant la présence d’anthocyanes en quantités importantes dans les tissus végétatifs. De plus les embryons transgéniques ont un développement accéléré par rapport aux embryons sauvages. Ces travaux ont permis de mieux comprendre la régulation de l’accumulation des anthocyanes responsables de la coloration des baies de raisin, et plus largement, la régulation du métabolisme des flavonoïdes
El desarrollo de la uva es un proceso dinámico caracterizado por una curva de crecimiento doble sigmoidea, separada por una fase lag, en donde ocurre una biosíntesis coordinada de metabolitos primarios y secundarios. Al final de la fase lag, ocurre un fenómeno llamado pinta correspondiente al comienzo de la coloración de la baya e iniciándose también el proceso de maduración. Las antocianinas son las responsables de la coloración de la piel de las bayas y su regulación ha sido ampliamente estudiada. Sin embargo, pocos estudios se han enfocado en la caracterización genética y metabólica, utilizando variedades contrastantes de color de piel. Utilizando análisis metabólico y la tecnología de RNA-seq, se realizó una nueva caracterización comparativa de dos uvas de mesa, Chimenti Globe (CG) y Red Globe (RG), que poseen un color de piel de la baya contrastante: CG tiene un color rojizo claro y RG posee un color morado. La originalidad de este modelo es que CG fue generada en un evento espontáneo de campo desde una rama de una planta RG. Por lo tanto, el background genético responsable del cambio de color es el mismo. El análisis del contenido metabólico de las pieles de las bayas reveló la importancia de las etapas de desarrollo, pinta y maduración, en ambas variedades en estudio. En particular, la diferencia en la concentración de metabolitos de la ruta fenilpropanoide, tales como shikimato y fenilalanina y otras moléculas como UDP-glucosa y trehalosa-6-fosfato, entre otros. Asimismo, las diferencias entre las variedades estuvieron dadas por cambios relacionados con la biosíntesis de sacarosa y antocianinas. CG solo contenía antocianinas dihidroxiladas, cianidina y peonidina, y no las del tipo trihidroxiladas, malvidina, delfinidina y petunidina, lo cual fue consistente con el fenotipo del color de piel observado. A partir del análisis transcriptómico, generamos un heatmap con 109 genes expresado diferencialmente en CG en comparación con RG, siendo muchos de estos asociados a la ruta biosíntesis de flavonoides. Además, observamos que 11 copias del gen flavonoide 3'5'-hidroxilasa, que codifica una enzima clave para la biosíntesis de antocianinas trihidroxiladas, no estaban inducidas en CG. A partir de este análisis, se seleccionó un gen candidato para contribuir en el estudio de la ruta de biosíntesis de antocianinas: citocromo b5 (Cytb5) que codifica una proteína clave donadora de electrones no caracterizada en vides. La sobreexpresión de Cytb5 en embriones V. berlandieri x V. rupestris cv. 110R sugirió fuertemente la participación en la ruta, ya que los embriones transgénicos exhibieron un color rojizo e incluso, un desarrollo acelerado en comparación con el control. Con estos resultados, hemos sido capaces de proporcionar información sobre la regulación de las antocianinas en vides responsables de la coloración de la piel de las bayas, abriendo nuevos terrenos en la búsqueda de reguladores moleculares de la vía flavonoide

Positioned between writing and drawing, the diagram is proposed by John Berger as an alternative strategy for articulating encounters with landscape. A diagrammatic approach offers a schematic vocabulary that can compress time and offer a spatial reading of information. Situated within the contemporary field of direct data visualisation, my practice-led research interprets Berger’s ‘Field’ essay as a guide to producing four field | studies within a suburban park in Canberra. My seasonal investigations demonstrate how applying the conventions of the pictorial list, dot-distribution map, routing diagram and colour-wheel reveals subtle ecological and biographical narratives.

Tese de Doutoramento em Genética Molecular Comparativa apresentada à Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro
Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the oldest perennial domesticated fruit crops in the world and has been widely cultivated and appreciated both for its fruit and wine. During the domestication process of the wild Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris to Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa, a complex and long-term evolutionary process led to dramatic changes on grape biology. Since early, vine growers selected the grapevine phenotypes capable of ensuring a greater and regular fruit production and quality, maintaining them through vegetative propagation, thus multiplying highly desirable genotypes. However, natural crossings between newly introduced cultivars and the local germplasm also occurred, alongside with the emergence of somatic events. One of the major contributors for the existing diversity in cultivated grapevine has been the appearance of somatic mutations that affect berry skin color leading to various phenotypes. Indeed, this feature has been used as basis for selection on breeding programs due to its influence on vine growers, winemakers and consumers, representing an important economic factor on this crop. Grapes are not obviously only red or white, instead they provide a huge assortment of colors ranging from whitish, yellow, green, to pink, grey, and to darker red, purple and black berries. This broad range of color cannot be explained by the simple presence of a specific group of molecules, thus, the present study intended to deepen the current knowledge about how grape berry skin color variation is affected by the synthesis of phenolic compounds and their underlying genetic factors. Primarily, the identification of grape berry skin color mutants was performed by genotyping a germplasm set of twenty-five grapevine accessions with twelve microsatellite loci. Among the eleven groups of putative berry skin color mutants genotyped, nine accessions, which were grouped in four different families, were identified as true color mutants, including related black, grey or red and white-skinned variants derived from a single variety. The phenolic profile of the confirmed berry skin color mutants revealed that they could be distinguished according to their non-colored compounds and anthocyanins composition. Moreover, this work benefits from the complementary use of molecular and chemical approaches for the correct identification of the berry skin color mutants studied. The change of berry skin color, from green to white/yellow in non-colored cultivars or from green to pink-red/blue-black in colored cultivars due to anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation occurs during the onset of ripening (veraison). Based on these facts, a first attempt to characterize these changes by means of an integrative approach combining colorimetric (CIELab measurement), metabolic (phenolic profile by HPLC-DAD) and genotypic (allelic composition of MYBA1 and MYBA2 genes) data was performed. This study was focused on the changes that occur during berry development, to improve the knowledge regarding grape berry skin color diversity using somatic variants for berry skin color. Overall, the process of anthocyanin biosynthesis/ accumulation showed a correlation with the colorimetric parameters analysed. Despite the berry skin color variability observed among the somatic variants analyzed was not fully explained by the berry color locus genotype, the phenolic profiles allowed to infer about specific interferences, namely some possible dysfunctions at different levels of the biosynthetic pathway, which could be behind the color variation observed. Additionally, a case study focused on an extremely skin-pigmented Portuguese cultivar (cv. ‘Vinhão’) was conducted throughout berry development, providing the first insights into the genetic and transcriptomic background that may be responsible for the skin color properties of this cultivar. Several types of mutations have been identified at the berry color locus as being responsible for color reversions in grapevine. Through a layer-specific approach, the molecular mechanisms responsible for berry skin color reversion were determined on a subset of somatic variants for berry skin color never investigated before, by the genetic characterization of the berry color locus and its surrounding genomic region. In addition to the observation and description of the most well-known models and mechanisms behind berry skin color reversions, a novel mechanism for the genetic make-up of less-pigmented variants evolving from an unpigmented ancestor was also proposed, in which color gain seems to result from the recovery of the functional G allele on MYBA2. Moreover, it was observed that the mutational events responsible for color gain/ recovery are less understood and different from those described for color loss. On this way, a case study of a white-to-red berry skin color reversion was also performed, in order to better understand its transcriptomic and metabolic consequences in grapevine, specifically in the cv. ‘Moscatel Galego’. The results obtained showed that the coloration of the red-skinned variant was recovered from the white-skinned phenotype of cv. ‘Moscatel Galego Branco’ by the partial activation of the berry color locus. The red-skinned coloration in cv. ‘Moscatel Galego Roxo’ was also associated with the reduced activity of the flavonoid trihydroxylated sub-branch and decreased anthocyanins methylation/acylation.
A videira (Vitis vinifera L.) é uma das mais antigas culturas perenes domesticadas no mundo e tem sido extensamente cultivada e apreciada tanto pelos seus frutos como pelo vinho. Ao longo do processo de domesticação de Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris para Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa, um processo evolutivo complexo e de longa duração levou a alterações dramáticas na biologia da uva. Desde cedo, os vitivinicultores selecionaram os fenótipos de videira capazes de assegurar uma maior e mais regular produção e qualidade do fruto, mantendo-os através de propagação vegetativa, multiplicando assim, genótipos altamente desejáveis. No entanto, também ocorreram cruzamentos naturais entre as novas cultivares introduzidas e o germoplama local, juntamente com o aparecimento de eventos somáticos. Uma das maiores contribuições para a diversidade existente na videira cultivada foi o aparecimento de mutações somáticas que afetam a cor do bago levando a vários fenótipos. De facto, esta característica tem sido usada como base de seleção em programas de melhoramento devido à sua influência sobre os vitivinicultores, enólogos e consumidores, representando um importante fator económico nesta cultura. As uvas não são obviamente só tintas ou brancas, em vez disso apresentam uma enorme seleção de cores variando desde uvas esbranquiçadas, amarelas, verdes, a rosadas, rosa-pálido, e até vermelhas mais escuras, roxas e pretas. Este grande intervalo de cor não pode ser explicado pela simples presença de um determinado grupo de moléculas, assim, o presente estudo destinou-se a aprofundar o conhecimento atual sobre como a variação da cor do bago é afetada pela síntese de compostos fenólicos e os seus fatores genéticos subjacentes. Primeiramente, foi efetuada a identificação de mutantes para a cor do bago num conjunto de germoplasma contendo vinte e cinco acessos de videira através da genotipagem com doze loci de microssatélites. Entre os onze grupos de putativos mutantes para a cor do bago genotipados, nove acessos, agrupados em quatro famílias diferentes, foram identificados como verdadeiros mutantes para a cor, incluindo variantes com película de cor tinta, roxa ou rosada e branca derivados de uma única variedade. O perfil fenólico dos mutantes para a cor do bago confirmados revelou que estes podem ser distinguidos de acordo com a sua composição em compostos não-corados e antocianinas. Além disso, este trabalho beneficiou do uso complementar de técnicas moleculares e químicas para a correta identificação dos mutantes para a cor do bago estudados. A alteração da cor do bago, de verde para branco/amarelo em cultivares não-corados ou de verde para rosa-avermelhado/preto-azulado em cultivares corados devido à síntese e acumulação de antocianinas ocorre no início do amadurecimento (pintor). Com base nestes factos, foi realizada uma primeira tentativa de caracterizar estas mudanças recorrendo a uma abordagem integrada combinando dados colorimétricos (medição CIELab), metabólicos (perfil fenólico através de HPLC-DAD) e genotípicos (composição alélica dos genes MYBA1 e MYBA2). Este estudo focou-se nas alterações ocorridas durante o desenvolvimento do bago, de forma a melhorar o conhecimento acerca da diversidade da cor do bago em videira utilizando variantes somáticos para a cor do bago. No geral, o processo de biossíntese/ acumulação de antocianinas demonstrou uma correlação com os parâmetros colorimétricos analisados. Apesar da variabilidade da cor do bago observada entre os variantes somáticos analisados não ser totalmente explicada pelo genótipo do locus da cor do bago, os perfis fenólicos permitiram inferir sobre interferências específicas, nomeadamente sobre possíveis disfunções a diversos níveis da via biossintética, que poderão estar por detrás da variação de cor observada. Adicionalmente, um estudo de caso focado num cultivar Português extremamente pigmentado (cv. ‘Vinhão’) foi conduzido durante o desenvolvimento do bago, fornecendo as primeiras descobertas sobre o fundo genético e transcritómico que poderá ser responsável pelas propriedades colorimétricas deste cultivar. Vários tipos de mutações têm sido identificados no locus da cor do bago como sendo responsáveis por reversões de cor em videira. Através de uma abordagem específica em camadas, os mecanismos moleculares responsáveis por reversões de cor foram determinados num conjunto de variantes somáticos para a cor da película do bago, nunca estudados anteriormente, através da caracterização genética do locus da cor do bago e da região genómica adjacente. Além da observação e descrição dos modelos e mecanismos responsáveis pela reversão de cor mais conhecidos, foi também proposto um novo mecanismo responsável pela composição genética de variantes pouco pigmentados descendentes de um ancestral não pigmentado, no qual o ganho de cor parece resultar da recuperação do alelo funcional G no gene MYBA2. Além disso, foi observado que os eventos mutacionais responsáveis pelo ganho/ recuperação de cor são menos compreendidos e diferentes dos descritos para a perda de cor. Desta forma, foi realizado o estudo de um caso de reversão de cor, de branco para rosado, de forma a melhor compreender as suas consequências a nível transcritómico e metabólico em videira, especificamente no cv. ‘Moscatel Galego’. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a coloração do variante roxo foi recuperada a partir do fenótipo branco do cv. ‘Moscatel Galego Branco’ através da ativação parcial do locus da cor do bago. A coloração roxa do cv. ‘Moscatel Galego Roxo’ foi também associada à reduzida atividade da sub-via dos flavonoides tri-hidroxilados e à diminuição da metilação/ acilação das antocianinas

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of skin color on subsequent ratings of job suitability and to evaluate the influence trait based stereotypes have on these ratings. Results showed that the effect of skin color on job suitability is moderated by the race of the rater. For white raters, more favorable job suitability ratings were attributed to light skinned applicants. For black raters, more favorable job suitability ratings were attributed to dark skinned applicants. There was no basis for attributing the skin color differences to trait based stereotypes. These findings are discussed and future research goals are presented.

‘Let China’s earth, enrich’d with colour’d stains, Pencil’d with gold, and streak’d with azure veins, The grateful flavour of the Indian leaf, Or Mocho’s sunburnt berry glad receive.’ The day after this meeting with Higgins and his daughter, Mr....

Phenolics compounds in grapes contribute to berry and must color, organoleptic properties, nutritional value, antioxidant properties and provide protection against environmental challenges. Climate change has place mammoth challenges for the viticulture industry in different viticulture regions. Environmental variables determine to the greater extent, suitable grapes varieties for fresh as well as premium quality wine production. Grape berry composition is particularly affected by heat, drought, and intensity of solar irradiation. It is expected that climatic extremes will have an adverse effect on berry quality traits such as phenolic compounds in different grape cultivars. Polyphenols particularly anthocyanins decrease at elevated temperature, similarly flavanols levels increase with better exposure to solar radiation. Water availability is crucial for better vine growth and good production, however modest water stress particularly near veraison, upregulates the activity of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways. Therefore, it is important to know that how and when phenolic substance accumulate in berries and how various cultivars respond. This review elaborates the effect of weather conditions on biosynthesis of different phenolic compounds in grapes. Berry phenolic substances e.g., total phenolic compounds (TPC), total anthocyanins (TAC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC) synthesis is strongly regulated under the influence of environmental conditions during growing season. In this chapter we, shall focus on accumulation of phenolic compounds in grapevine in relation to climatic variations.

Thanks to the wide assortment, excellent taste and bright appearance, confectionery products have become an integral part of the diet of a modern person. Along with this, these products are a source of easily digestible carbohydrates, the consumption of which in large quantities can contribute to the development of a number of diseases, in particular, weight gain, the occurrence of cardiovascular pathologies, and the like. It is very difficult and impractical to completely abandon sweets, because sugar is necessary for the brain to function, and other components of confectionery are effective and safe antidepressants. Therefore, a number of nutritionists are still advising to use a group of pastille-marmalade products (zefir, pastille, marmalade), since it is these sweets that have a lower energy value compared to cakes, chocolate and others. Products such as marshmallows are obtained by whipping fruit and berry puree with sugar and egg white, followed by the addition of gelling agents. Food acids, essences, flavors, dyes, etc. are used as additives in the production of pastilles. The technology of these products uses fruit puree, most often sulphitized apple puree, which, during manufacture and storage, loses useful substances, which leads to the fact that the finished product has an insignificant content of vitamins, micro- and macroelements. Therefore, it is possible to increase the content of functionally physiological nutrients by using blended fruit and berry paste obtained under gentle temperature conditions. This will give an attractive color and flavor to the pastille without the use of dyes and flavors. In this regard, the aim of the work is to improve the technology of pastille of increased nutritional value with the addition of multicomponent fruit and berry paste from apples, cranberries and blackberries. The new technology will expand the range of confectionery products with a high content of functionally physiological ingredients. The structural and mechanical properties and quality indicators of multicomponent fruit and berry paste from apples, cranberries and blackberries have been studied. According to the results of determining the organoleptic and physicochemical quality indicators, it is established that the rational amount in the formulation of the pastille of multicomponent fruit and berry paste is 40% with the replacement of apple puree. The changes that occur during storage of the pastille are set. Yes, there is less moisture loss in the pastille with the addition of the paste, which is due to the higher content of pectin in the products. An increase in shaperetaining properties and a decrease in adhesion have been determined, which will prevent them from sticking together during the entire shelf life. The formulation and technological scheme of preparation of pastille products with multicomponent fruit and berry paste are developed, and also the complex indicator of quality of pastille with application of principles of qualimetry is defined. The addition of a multicomponent fruit and berry paste to the recipe composition of the marshmallow increases the content of all biologically active substances in comparison with products without the addition of this paste. Thus, the content of low molecular weight polyphenolic compounds, vitamins, minerals increases, in particular the content of pectin increases 2.2 times, ascorbic acid is 4.2 times higher.

The fifth chapter of The Center of the World: Regional Writing and the Puzzles of Place-Time is titled “Regionalisms Now.” It mobilizes the analytic categories developed in previous chapters in an examination of place-focused cultural production in several media. Examples are drawn from television, popular romance and mystery novels, and literary fiction. These works are not treated as embodiments of an ideal genre or lineal descendants of local color; the argument is that the concept of region remains relevant for contemporary culture and that narrations of place continue to project temporality. The chapter offers extended readings of the authors Ernest Hebert and Wendell Berry, and posits the parable of the global village as an emerging genre.

Focusing on pro-fundamentalist and antimodernist rhetoric coming from black pulpits, this chapter examines sermons and speeches from such figures as Congregationalist minister Edward Franklin Williams, Methodist pastors John Albert Johnson and Isaac Reed Berry, and National Baptist leader Lacey Kirk Williams. While these black fundamentalists regularly expressed their theological positions in ways that aligned with their white counterparts, they also presented starkly different applications of fundamentalism, which grew out of their specific racial context. Isaac Berry’s discourse on Christ’s atonement, for example, led him to denounce legal bans on interracial marriage as contrary to the unifying identity established by Christ’s blood. So while fundamentalism has traditionally been associated with politically conservative activism (such as anti-evolution crusades), the inclusion of these black voices offers a new perspective. Fundamentalist doctrine, theology, and even identity may have crossed the color line, but social and racial context played a significant role in the ways that these convictions were applied and expressed.

As the new U.S. nation emerged, its government began restricting the rights of free people of color to ensure white supremacy and protect slavery. The North Carolina government took away Indians’ and free blacks’ rights to vote, and their political, legal, and economic power. Since Lumbees owned their land individually, the government couldn’t seize their lands directly. But Lumbees experienced other insidious methods of land loss. Lumbees did not all choose the same side during the Civil War. Some opposed the Confederacy to regain freedoms they had lost, while others focused on a strategy that would allow them to maintain the freedoms they had. During the Civil War, a group of Indian men from the Lowry and Oxendine families, along with some outsiders, camped out in swamps to avoid conscription into the Confederate army. After the war, as racial violence flared in the community, the group, eventually headed by Henry Berry Lowry, began to fight against white supremacy via raids and revenge killings. The Lowry Gang was hailed as folk heroes by some and dangerous outlaws by others. The Lowry War, as the conflict became known, showed Lumbees’ willingness to fight against a racial hierarchy.

The cultivated strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) is derived from Fragaria chiloensis and Fragaria virginiana species a few centuries ago, and it is one of the most preferred and consumed berries all over the world because of its a good source in terms of many nutritional elements. Strawberry has high genetic variability and adaptation to different environmental conditions due to its highly heterozygous nature. In the last decades, many farmers, breeders, researchers even consumers have started to focus on berry quality traits such as large fruit, uniform shape, high fruit firmness, high fruit sensorial quality (aroma contents), color, gloss, and resistance to pathogens. Thus, the development of novel strawberry cultivars or genotypes with high nutritionally quality traits has become one of the main aims in strawberry breeding programs. Biotechnological tools such as the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) and marker-assisted selection (MAS) are the most widely used technologies in fruit breeding programs for shortening the breeding period. Identification of QTLs in agnomical important traits are very valuable tools for early selection in strawberry breeding programs. This chapter is focused on QTL and marker assisted breeding studies in strawberry to date and provides new perspectives on molecular breeding in strawberry breeding.

Geneticists and specialists working with individuals with intellectual disability now recognize that genetic syndromes may have characteristic physical phenotypes and behavioral features that may be linked to a specific genetic syndrome. These patterns of behavior are referred to as behavioral phenotypes. This chapter utilizes a developmental perspective to provide a definition and characterization of behavioral phenotypes in neurodevelopmental disorders and to discuss etiology, methodologies to understand underlying mechanisms, and the natural history of the disorder. Neurogenetic disorders with behavioral phenotypes include (1) Down syndrome, (2) Velocardiofacial syndrome, (3) Smith-Magenis syndrome, (4) Turner syndrome, (5) Rett’s disorder, (6) Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, (7) Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes, (8) fragile X syndrome, and (9) Williams syndrome. Each of these neurogenetic disorders involves a different genetic mechanism and provides a portal to understand neurodevelopment. A disorder that is environmentally induced, fetal alcohol syndrome, is also discussed and it, too, may provide a key to understanding aspects of the developing brain (Ikonomidou et al., 2000). The first description of behavior associated with an intellectual disability syndrome was by Down (1887). In describing the syndrome that bears his name, Down observed that “They have considerable powers of imitation, even bordering on being mimics. Their humorousness and a lively sense of the ridiculous often color their mimicry.” Later, he added: “Several patients who have been under my care have been wont to convert their pillow cases into surplices (vestments) and to imitate, in tone and gesture, the clergymen or chaplain which they have recently heard.” He also commented on personality traits, saying that “Another feature is their great obstinacy—they can only be guided by consummate tact.” Although these stereotypes were not confirmed in subsequent studies (Gath and Gumley, 1986; Gunn, Berry, and Andrews, 1981), the prospect of linking behavior and genetics was introduced in this first description of a neurogenetic disorder. Subsequent early clinical descriptions, such as that of tuberous sclerosis complex by Critchley and Earl (1932), identified peculiar, and severe, behavioral problems in children and adult with that condition.

In the dream of earth, Thomas Berry makes the following comment about the environmental crisis: “It’s all a question of story. We are in trouble now because we do not have a good story. We are in between stories. The old story, the account of how the world came to be and how we fit into it, is no longer effective.” The intent in this book is to tell the new story that could greatly enhance the prospect of resolving the environmental crisis. One of the frame tales for this story is science. On the most obvious level, scientific knowledge has gifted us with an understanding of the causes of this crisis and how it can be resolved. What is not so obvious is that this knowledge has also revealed that the old stories about political and economic reality are badly in need of revision. The old story is imaged on the conventional globes that sit in classrooms, government offices, libraries, and home offices like the one in which I am writing this book. On these globes, boundaries between nation-states are marked with dark lines, and the regions or territories governed by these states are painted different primary colors. The parts (nation-states) are separate and discrete entities, the whole (planet earth) is static, and the sum of the parts constitutes the whole. In the geopolitical reality imaged on these globes, seven billion people live within the borders of sovereign nation-states and construct their identities based on diverse cultural narratives about nationalism, ethnicity, political ideology, and religious beliefs and practices. The only source of political power in this reality is the sovereign nation-state, and these states endlessly compete with one another for the capital and scarce natural resources needed to sustain and grow their national economies. The new story is imaged in the digital photographs and videos taken by earth-orbiting satellites that environmental scientists use to study the complex web of interactions between human and environmental systems.

Genetic analysis and mapping in grapes has been difficult because of the long generation period and paucity of genetic markers. In the present work, chromosome linkage maps were developed with RAPD, RFLP and isozyme loci in interspecific hybrid cultivars, and RAPD markers were produced in a V. vinifera population. In three cultivars, there were 19 linkage groups as expected for a species with 38 somatic chromosomes. These maps were used to locate chromosome regions with linkages to important genes, including those influencing powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot resistance; flower sex; and berry shape. In V. vinifera, the occurrence of specific markers was correlated with seedlessness, muscat flavor and fruit color. Polymorphic RAPD bands included single copy as well as repetitive DNA. Mapping procedures were improved by optimizing PCR parameters with grape DNA; by the development of an efficient DNA extraction protocol; and with the use of long (17- to 24-mer) primers which amplify more polymorphic loci per primer. DNA fingerprint analysis with RAPD markers indicated that vinifera cultivars could be separated readily with RAPD profiles. Pinot gris, thought to be a sort of Pinot noir, differed by 12 bands from Pinot noir. This suggests that while Pinot gris may be related to Pinot noir, it is not likely to be a clone. The techniques developed in this project are now being further refined to use marker-assisted selection in breeding programs for the early selection of elite seedlings. Furthermore, the stage has been set for future attempts to clone genes from grapes based upon map locations.