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1

M, Hardy Leslie, and Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Prenatal and Newborn Screening for HIV Infection., eds. HIV screening of pregnant women and newborns. National Academy Press, 1991.

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2

Ali, Ased, and Rob Pickard. Infection of the lower urinary tract. Edited by Neil Sheerin. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0176_update_001.

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Lower urinary tract infection is common, distressing, and when recurrent can have a significant impact on quality of life. The normally sterile urinary tract is the site of an ongoing but complex interplay between an evolving pathogen and a highly developed host immune defence system. The development of an active infection generally requires either greater virulence in the pathogen or deficient host immune defence. Nonetheless, even where infection has occurred, the interplay between pathogen and host continues, influencing the extent and level of invasion as well as the duration of infection
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3

Glenn, Barry C. Guide to Urinary Tract Infection for Beginners: A Urinary Tract Infection, or UTI, Is an Infection in Any Part of Your Urinary System, Which Includes Your Kidneys, Bladder. Independently Published, 2021.

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4

Bowker, Lesley K., James D. Price, Ku Shah, and Sarah C. Smith. Infection and immunity. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198738381.003.0024.

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This chapter provides information on the ageing immune system, an overview of infection in older people, antibiotic use in older patients, meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), disease caused by MRSA, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, near-patient urine tests, asymptomatic bacteriuria, urinary tract infection, treatment of urinary tract infection, recurrent urinary tract infection, and varicella-zoster infection.
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5

Prather, Christina, Mariatu Koroma-Nelson, and Mikhail Kogan. Common Geriatric Infections. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190466268.003.0017.

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The function of the immune system changes with aging. Immune support can decrease the risk of infection, are imperative practices to incorporate in the care of older adults. The most common infections among older adults are pneumonia and urinary tract infection (UTI). Infections in older person often associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Antibiotics are commonly prescribed for variety of infections, however, often these can lead to severe complications such as infectious diarrhea. Integrative methods of managing non-life threatening infections reviewed in this chapter. In additi
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6

Heyns, Chris. Tuberculosis and parasitic infestations involving the urogenital system. Edited by Rob Pickard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0006.

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Urogenital tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which evokes a granulomatous tissue reaction leading to caseous necrosis, fibrosis, and eventual calcification. It most commonly presents as cystitis with sterile pyuria but can show many other symptoms and signs requiring a high index of suspicion to make the diagnosis. Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) affecting the urinary tract is caused by the flatworm Schistosoma haematobium. Humans are infested by contact with fresh water harbouring the intermediate snail host. Echinococcosis (hydatid disease), is caused by the tapeworm Echinoco
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7

Wilson, John W., and Lynn L. Estes. Infectious Syndromes in Adults. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190696924.003.0005.

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This section contains tables and text covering an exhaustive group of infectious syndromes including respiratory tract infections, infective endocarditis, intravascular catheter-related infections, central nervous system infections, urinary tract infections, soft-tissue infections, osteomyelitis, gastrointestinal infections, tick-borne infections, tuberculosis, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV, hepatitis, and fungal and zoonotic infections. Vaccination schedules, travel medicine, and bioterrorism are also reviewed.
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8

Barsoum, Rashad S. Schistosomiasis. Edited by Vivekanand Jha. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0194_update_001.

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The urinary system is the primary target of Schistosoma haematobium infection, which leads to granuloma formation in the lower urinary tract that heals with fibrosis and calcification. While the early lesions may be associated with distressing acute or subacute symptoms, it is the late lesions that constitute the main clinical impact of schistosomiasis. The latter include chronic cystitis, ureteric fibrosis, ureterovesical obstruction or reflux which may lead to chronic pyelonephritis. Secondary bacterial infection and bladder cancer are the main secondary sequelae of urinary schistosomiasis.T
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9

Sobel, Jack D. Genito-urinary fungal infections. Edited by Christopher C. Kibbler, Richard Barton, Neil A. R. Gow, Susan Howell, Donna M. MacCallum, and Rohini J. Manuel. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198755388.003.0027.

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The predominant fungal causes of genitourinary disease are Candida spp.; other fungal genera are uncommon pathogens in both sexes. Vulvovaginal candidiasis affects millions of women worldwide—and includes acute sporadic, recurrent, and chronic syndromes—and considerable progress has been made in understanding its pathophysiology and hence the best therapy. Therapeutic options are still limited, however, and misdiagnosis is common. In contrast, urinary tract candidiasis reflects an entirely different pathogenesis and clinical expression affecting a predominantly hospital-based older population.
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10

Thomas, David F. M. Urinary tract infection in children. Edited by David F. M. Thomas. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0114.

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Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the commonest conditions of childhood, affecting an estimated 10% of girls and 3% of boys in the first 16 years of life. Whereas asymptomatic bacteriuria and low-grade lower tract infection pose little or no risk of renal damage, pyelonephritis can cause severe systemic illness and poses a significant threat of long-term renal morbidity. The principal aim of investigation is to identify underlying abnormalities of the urinary tract, notably vesicoureteric reflux. Guidelines on investigation and management published by the National Institute of Clinical E
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11

Ali, Ased. Pathogenesis of urinary tract infection. Edited by Rob Pickard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0001.

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The realization of the harms resulting from indiscriminate use of antibiotics for minor infection has added impetus to the need to understand better the interaction between urogenital tract epithelium and invading bacteria during the initial stages of urinary tract infection (UTI). It is thought that uropathogenic Escherichia coli clones develop in the gut and migrate across the perineum to the urethra and up into the bladder. The response of the epithelium to bacterial adherence and the evolution of the invading bacteria will then govern the clinical consequences. These can vary between rapid
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12

Alsulaimy, Mohammad, and Seyed Mohammad Kalantar Motamedi. Bariatric Surgery and Perioperative Infections. Edited by Tomasz Rogula, Philip Schauer, and Tammy Fouse. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190608347.003.0011.

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Morbid obesity is associated with an increased risk of infectious complications including surgical site, urinary tract, and pulmonary infections. Surgical site infections (SSI) are the most common, followed by urinary and respiratory infections. Various risk factors in obese patients including impaired immunity, and altered pulmonary and circulatory systems contribute to the increased susceptibility of morbid obese patients to infectious complications. Perioperative infections are defined to occur within 30 days of the initial operative procedure. Surgical site and urinary tract infections usu
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13

Lee, Olivia T., Jennifer N. Wu, Frederick J. Meyers, and Christopher P. Evans. Genitourinary aspects of palliative care. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656097.003.0084.

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Genitourinary tract diseases in the palliative care setting most commonly involve urinary tract obstruction, intractable bleeding, fistulae, and bladder-associated pain. Sources of obstruction in the lower urinary tract include benign prostatic hyperplasia, invasive prostate or bladder cancer, urethral stricture, or bladder neck contracture. Upper tract obstruction includes intraluminal or extraluminal blockage of the renal collecting system and ureters, such as transitional cell carcinoma, fibroepithelial polyps, stricture, stones, pelvic or retroperitoneal malignancy, fibrosis, or prior radi
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14

Drennan, Kathryn J., and Maria Vanushkina. Spinal Cord Injury in Pregnancy. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190667351.003.0029.

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Spinal cord injury is an uncommon complication of pregnancy. But women with spinal cord injuries should be counseled that successful pregnancy is possible. Pregnancies should be planned once the patient has reached optimal functional status. At the outset of pregnancy, complications should be planned for, and an overall functional and routine health maintenance assessment should be evaluated. Providers should pay particular attention to voiding and elimination management, prevention of urinary tract infection, respiratory complications, and autonomic dysreflexia. Urinary complications can be d
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15

Wilkins, Robert, David Meredith, and Ian Megson, eds. Oxford Handbook of Medical Sciences. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198789895.001.0001.

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The Oxford Handbook of Medical Sciences is written by biomedical scientists and clinicians to be the definitive guide to the fundamental scientific principles that underpin medicine and the biomedical sciences. It provides a clear and easily digestible account of basic cell physiology, biochemistry, and molecular and medical genetics, followed by chapters integrating the traditional pillars of biomedicine (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pathology, and pharmacology) for each of the major systems and processes of the human body: nerve and muscle, musculoskeletal system, respiratory and cardi
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16

Peters, Ivan. Amoxicillin: The Beginner's Guide for the Therapy of Infections, Stds, Urinary System Infections, Pneumonia, Skin and Microbial Infections. Lulu Press, Inc., 2023.

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17

Sakhuja, Vinay, and Harbir Singh Kohli. Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis. Edited by Vivekanand Jha. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0184_update_001.

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Visceral leishmaniasis, also known as kala-azar, has an insidious onset with constitutional features. Subsequently the intense parasitism of the reticuloendothelial system causes hepatosplenomegaly, anaemia, leucopenia, and thrombocytopaenia as well as hypergammaglobulinaemia. Kidney involvement manifests with proteinuria up to 1 g/24 hours, micro/macrohaematuria, and leucocyturia. Kidney involvement is generally mild and reversible with the treatment of infection. Biopsy appearances of diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangial proliferation, and occasionally focal necrotizing glomer
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18

Balhara, Kamna S., Basem F. Khishfe, and Jamil D. Bayram. Sepsis. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199976805.003.0004.

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Sepsis is a clinical syndrome characterized by systemic inflammation in the presence of infection. The source of infection may be occult. One must be aware of the epidemiology, presenting features and complications, diagnostic considerations and tests, and the organisms involved. Bacteria (gram positive and negative) are most commonly associated with sepsis, although fungi, viruses, and parasites can cause sepsis. Infections in the lungs, urinary tract, abdomen, skin, brain, and other areas can cause bacteremia and lead to sepsis. Treatment includes airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs) ma
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19

FRANK, Kevin. Metronidazole: Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary Systems. Independently Published, 2022.

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20

Jones, Michelle. Tetracyclin: Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary Systems. Independently Published, 2022.

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21

Amoxicillin: Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary Systems. Independently Published, 2022.

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22

Gibson, Remi Gibson. Metronidazole Treatment: Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary Systems. Independently Published, 2022.

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23

Kinchen, Tony. Using Cephalexin: Ultimate Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary Systems. Independently Published, 2022.

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24

Fleckenstein, Alexa. The Benefits of Water Therapy for Sexual and Pelvic Problems (DRAFT). Edited by Madeleine M. Castellanos. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190225889.003.0022.

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Hydrotherapy holds promise for certain sexual and pelvic problems: Water that hits the skin acts on the entire body, triggering the neuro-endocrine-immune system, the brain, the gut-brain, and the autonomic nervous system—the neuro-endocrine axis. Hormesis (regular application of small toxic events or stressors leading to adaption and invigoration) is the mechanism that balances physiological and biochemical processes, including sexuality. Water applications result in homeostasis (balancing of internal systems—such as temperature, electrolytes, and hormones) and invigoration (strengthening of
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25

JOHN, Adams. Drug Use Guide Metronidazole: The Step by Step Guide to Treat Bacterial, Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Tract Infections; Certain Infections of Skin, Eye, Lymphatic, Intestinal, Genital and Urinary System. Independently Published, 2022.

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26

Haymann, Jean-Philippe, and Francois Lionnet. The patient with sickle cell anaemia. Edited by Giuseppe Remuzzi. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0167.

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In sickle cell anaemia (SCA) a single mutation in the haemoglobin beta-globin gene is responsible for a pleomorphic phenotype leading to acute and chronic life-threatening complications. Healthcare management programmes, patient and family education, infection prophylaxis (especially in childhood), and long-term treatment for some patients (such as hydroxyurea) have significantly improved survival, giving rise to some new long-term issues.Sickle cell-associated nephropathy (SCAN) leads in some cases to chronic renal failure with a significant impact on survival. SCAN is characterized by an inc
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27

Medforth, Janet, Linda Ball, Angela Walker, Sue Battersby, and Sarah Stables. Disorders of the postnatal period. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754787.003.0025.

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The chapter includes information on common problems experienced by women after the birth and during their post-birth recovery. Post-partum haemorrhage is covered here, in particular that caused by uterine infection which may rapidly develop into life-threatening sepsis. Included are aspects of physical problems such as circulatory or urinary disorders. The midwife is responsible for early detection and rapid referral to enable prompt treatment. Psychological disorders often escalate after the birth and can be overwhelming for the mother. Timely support and management are essential to ensure th
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28

Barakat, Amin Y., and Russell W. Chesney, eds. Pediatric Nephrology for Primary Care. American Academy of Pediatrics, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/9781581104356.

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This clinical resource is purpose-built to help primary caregivers take a lead role in diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of diverse pediatric kidney diseases. Diagnose and manage renal diseases with confidence. The resource book has clear, concise overviews of the full range of renal conditions you're likely to encounter; evidence-based discussion of each condition's clinical course, pathogenesis, and etiology; expert management recommendations and valuable clinical pearls, tables, algorithms, and clinical calculators to help with differential diagnosis and patient workups; advice on when t
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29

Enzyme tests in diagnosis. Arnold, 1996.

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30

Davey, Patrick, and David Sprigings, eds. Diagnosis and Treatment in Internal Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.001.0001.

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Diagnosis and Treatment in Internal Medicine is a new textbook, written by experts in their field, that provides succinct and authoritative guidance across the breadth of internal medicine. Diagnosis is the bedrock of management, and so how to reach a differential diagnosis of symptoms or presenting problems is a major element of the book. There is also comprehensive coverage of disorders of the body systems, including psychological aspects and palliative care. Chapters are structured so that key information can rapidly be found. Doctors need a broad perspective on health and its promotion, an
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31

Greco, Francesco, and Paolo Fornara. Inflammation. Edited by Rob Pickard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0009.

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Fournier’s gangrene (FG) defines a life-threatening necrotizing fasciitis of the external genitalia and perineum with a peak incidence at 50 years of age. It is associated with a mixed bacterial infection with Escherichia coli and Bacteroides spp. predominating. The diagnosis is made clinically with symptoms of skin necrosis, swelling, pain, crepitus, and feculent odour, and local and systemic signs of severe sepsis. Initial resuscitation with fluid replacement, oxygen therapy, and broad-spectrum empirical antibiotics should be rapidly followed by complete and aggressive surgical debridement w
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32

Schiller, Adalbert, Adrian Covic, and Liviu Segall. Chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis. Edited by Adrian Covic. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0086_update_001.

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Chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathies (CTINs) are a group of renal diseases, characterized by variable interstitial inflammation and fibrosis and tubular atrophy, and a slow course towards end-stage renal disease (ESRD). The causes of CTIN are numerous, including nephrotoxic drugs and chemicals, infections, autoimmune diseases, obstructive uropathies, and metabolic disorders. Taken together, CTIN are responsible for less than 10% of all ESRD cases requiring renal replacement therapy. The clinical manifestations of CTIN typically comprise low-grade proteinuria, leucocyturia, and variably red
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33

Kovacek, Doctor. TETRACYCLlNE: An Active Medication Used to Treat Many Different Bacterial Infections of the Skin, Intestines, Respiratory Tract, Urinary Tract, Genitals, Lymph Nodes, Severe Acne, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, and Other Body System. Independently Published, 2019.

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34

McGregor, Laura, Monica N. Gupta, and Max Field. Septic arthritis in adults. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0098.

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Septic arthritis (SA) is a medical emergency with mortality of around 15%. Presentation is usually monoarticular but in more than 10% SA affects two or more joints. Symptoms include rapid-onset joint inflammation with systemic inflammatory responses but fever and leucocytosis may be absent at presentation. Treatment according to British Society of Rheumatology/British Orthopaedic Association (BSR/BOA) guidelines should be commenced if there is a suspicion of SA. At-risk patients include those with primary joint disease, previous SA, recent intra-articular surgery, exogenous sources of infectio
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35

Wiles, Kate, Kate Bramham, and Catherine Nelson-Piercy. Kidney disease. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198713333.003.0044.

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This chapter describes the physiological adaptations to pregnancy in women with and without renal disease, reports pregnancy outcomes in women with both acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease, and discusses a management strategy for antenatal and peripartum care. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is difficult to define in pregnancy because of the physiological increase in glomerular filtration. A normal creatinine can mask renal injury in pregnancy. This chapter considers important causes of AKI in pregnancy including pre-eclampsia, HELLP syndrome, thrombotic microangiopathy, acute fatty liver
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36

HIV Screening of Pregnant Women And Newborns. Natl Academy Pr, 1990.

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