Academic literature on the topic 'Social classes – history – early works to 1800'

AbstractThis paper investigates comparison as a fundamental practice within the early life sciences. Four episodes are selected that show how comparing species works in the early 19th century and how it builds bridges between scientific and literary culture: comparing living organisms in pre-Darwinian natural history (Lacépède, Treviranus), comparing species distribution in actualistic geology (Lyell), comparing organs in comparative anatomy (Müller), and – last but not least – comparing social classes in new literary genres such as sketch, ‘Paris physiology’, or travel feuilleton.

ABSTRACTThis article presents a case study of the founders of almshouses for the elderly in the Dutch city of Leiden during the late middle ages and the early modern age. First, an overview of Leiden's almshouses is given and an assessment made of their importance for the elderly. Next, a prosopography of Leiden's almshouse founders is presented, and reasons for founding almshouses discussed, focusing on religion, status, and the support of one's nearest and dearest. This is followed by an analysis of the social class of almshouse inhabitants. This article contends that via almshouse foundations the wealthy and privileged upper classes of Dutch society looked after (distant) family members, employees and other dependants in their patronage orbit, and that almshouses thus in practice served mostly as a respectable way out of open and disgraceful poverty for members of the lower middle class and the class of wage-dependants.

The social history of the Chinese community in Singapore and Malaya in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries cannot be fully understood if aspects of class structure and social mobility are not examined. Of course, the social relations of the Chinese were principally determined by kinship and dialect ties, but they were also affected by class affiliations. Class status, like kinship and dialect relations distanted Chinese immigrants from one another. This paper seeks to examine the nature and structure of Chinese classes, class relations and the channels of social mobility in the Chinese community in Singapore and Malaya during the period between 1800 and 1911. The findings of this paper may be applicable to other overseas Chinese communities in the same period outside this region.

RESUMENLa presente investigación ahonda en el tratamiento integral de fuentes geohistóricas textuales. Está basada en la recuperación, el análisis y la apertura de nuevas fórmulas de conocimiento científico abiertas y extensivas a la sociedad global. Entre 1850 y 1940 se elaboran en España más de cuatrocientas obras médicas (geografías o topografías médicas), bajo influencia de las teorías higienistas en el urbanismo y la sociedad en su conjunto, que constituyen unas fuentes de información y documentación enormemente valiosas, y relativamente poco estudiadas, para el conocimiento de los espacios, urbanos y rurales, de la época. El uso del método hipotético-deductivo, modelo de amplia utilización en las ciencias geográficas y las humanidades, ha establecido como hipótesis fundamental que el paisaje y el territorio, y la información contenida en las obras médico-geográficas “Datos médico-topográficos de Ciudad Rodrigo” (1899) y “Datos para la geografía médica de Ciudad Rodrigo” (1920), se utilizarán como base para el análisis de la información que, a escala geográfica, aporta esta tipología documental, estableciendo una metodología para la extracción de información geográfica contenida en documentación histórica. Con ello, se pretende optimizar el uso de fuentes secundarias de conocimiento sobre el territorio y la sociedad, teniendo en cuenta la variedad y cantidad de información que se puede extraer de ellos, abriendo, a la vez, una vía de investigación que liga la salubridad del territorio y las estrategias para abordar problemas territoriales desde la geografía humana e histórica. Palabras clave: fuentes geohistóricas, topografías médicas, higienismo urbano, naturalismo terapéuticoTopónimos: Ciudad Rodrigo (Salamanca)Periodo: siglos xix y xx ABSTRACT This research delves into the comprehensive treatment of textual geohistorical sources based on the recovery, analysis and opening of new formulas of scientific knowledge open and extensive to global society. Between 1850 and 1940, more than four hundred medical works (medical geographies or topographies) were produced in Spain under the influence of hygienist theories in urban planning and constituting society a source of valuable information and documentation relatively little studied for the knowledge of the urban and rural spaces of the time. The use of the hypothetical-deductive method, a model widely used in geographical sciences and humanities, has established as a fundamental hypothesis that landscape and the territory and the information contained in the Medical-geographical works “Medical-topographical Data of Ciudad Rodrigo” (1899) and “Data for the Medical Geography of Ciudad Rodrigo” (1920), will be used as a basis for the analysis of the information that, on a geographical scale, provides this documentary typology and proposes a methodology for the extraction of geographic information contained in historical documentation. With this, it is intended to optimize the use of secondary sources of knowledge about the territory and society considering the variety and amount of information that can be extracted from them and opening, at the same time, a path of research that links health of the territory and the strategies to the approach territorial problems from the human and historical geography. Keywords: geohistorical sources, medical topographies, urban hygiene, therapeutic naturalismPlace names: Ciudad Rodrigo (Salamanca)Period: 19th and 20th centuries REFERENCIASArroyo Ilera, F. y Camarero Bullón, C., “Water for Madrid: The Problems of Water Supply in a Pre-industrial Capital”, en The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula. Trends in the History of Science. Berlin, Birkhäuser, Cham, 2019, pp. 67- 88.Beattie, J. “Imperial landscapes of health: Place, plants and people between India and Australia, 1800´s‐1900´s”, Health and History, 14-1, (2012), pp. 100-120.Brügelmann, J. “Observations on the Process of Medicalization in Germany, 1770-1830, Based on Medical Topographies”, Réflexions historiques, 9 (1-2) (1982), pp. 131-149.Cárdenes, V., Ponce de León, M., Rodríguez, X. A., y Rubio-Ordóñez, A. “Roofing Slate Industry in Spain: History, Geology, and Geoheritage”, Geoheritage, vol. 11-1, (2019), pp.19-34.Casco Solis, J. “Las topografías médicas: revisión y cronología”, Asclepio, vol. LIII-1, (2001), pp. 213-244.Chías Navarro, P. y Abad Moreno, T., “La construcción del territorio: los puentes en Castilla y León”, en Historia de las obras públicas en Castilla y León: ingeniería, territorio y patrimonio. Madrid, Colegio de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, 2008, pp. 360-361. Chun, Y., Kwan, M.P. y Griffith, D.A. “Uncertainty and context in GIScience and geography: challenges in the era of geospatial big data”, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 32, (2019), pp. 12-24.Comelles, J.M. “The Role of Local Knowledge in Medical Practice: A Trans-historical Perspective”. Cult Med Psychiatry, 24, (2000), pp. 39-73.D’Onofrio R. y Trusiani E., “The Need for New Urban Planning for Healthy Cities: Reorienting Urban Planning Towards Healthy Public Policy”, en Urban Planning for Healthy European Cities. Berlin, Springer, Cham, 2018, pp. 31-41.García Juan, L. y Vallina Rodríguez, A. “SIG y bases de datos. Oportunidades y retos en la transición de los sistemas tradicionales al big data”, Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie VI Geografía, 12, (2019), pp. 135-158.García Juan, L., “Ciudad Rodrigo: al servicio del rey para la defensa de la frontera portuguesa”, en El Catastro de Ensenada. Magna Averiguación Fiscal para alivio de los vasallos y mejor conocimiento de los reinos (1749-1756). Ciudad Rodrigo, 1750. Madrid, Dirección General del Catastro, 2019, pp. 62-119. Griffin, C. “Historical Geography of Environment”, en International Encyclopedia of Human Geography. Elsevier, Londres, 2019, pp. 169-174.Gurrutxaga, M. “Geografía de la salud: aplicaciones en la planificación territorial y urbana”, Estudios geográficos, 280-286, (2019), pp. 2-18.Huzui, A. E., Călin, I. y Pătru-Stupariu, I. “Spatial Pattern Analyses of Landscape using Multi-Temporal Data Sources”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, 14, (2012), pp. 98-110.Jepson, W. “Of soil, situation, and Salubrity: Medical topography and medical officers in early nineteenth‐century British India”, Historical Geography, 32, (2004), pp. 137-155.Jori, G. “El estadio de la salud y la enfermedad desde una perspectiva geográfica: temas, enfoques y métodos”, Biblio 3W Revista bibliográfica de geografía y ciencias sociales, Vol. XVIII, n.º 1029, 15 de junio de 2013.Kearns, K.A. y Joseph, A.E. “Space in its place: Developing the link in medical geography”, Social Science Medicine, vol. 37-6, (1993), pp. 711-717.Lorenzo Briega, A., “Geografía médica española: Datos médicos topográficos de Ciudad Rodrigo”. Ciudad Rodrigo: Imp. de la Vda. e Hijos de Cuadrado, 1899, 102 pp. Oosterom, J. “The importance of hygiene in modern society”, International Biodeterioration Biodegradation, Volume 41, Issues 3–4, (1998), pp. 185-189.Parr, H. “Medical geography: critical medical and health geography?”, Progress in Human Geography, 22-2, (2004), pp. 246-257.Piovan S.E. “The Geohistorical Approach in Environmental and Territorial Studies”, en The Geohistorical Approach. Berlin, Springer Geography, 2020, pp. 5-37. Porras Galló, M. I. “Luchando contra una de las causas de invalidez: antecedentes, contexto sanitario, gestación y aplicación del decreto de vacunación obligatoria contra la viruela de 1903”. Asclepio, vol. LVI-1 (2004), pp. 145- 168.Prats, L. “La Catalunya rància les condicions de vida materials de les classes populars a la Catalunya de la Restauració segons les topografies mèdiques”. Barcelona, Ed. Alta Fulla, 1996.Sánchez Manzano, M., “Datos para la geografía médica de Ciudad Rodrigo”. Ciudad Rodrigo: Imp. De Vicente Cuadrado, 1929, 118 pp. Smyth, F. “Medical geography: understanding health inequalities”, Progress in Human Geography, 32-1 (2008), pp. 119-127.Urteaga, L. “La teoría de los climas y los orígenes del ambientalismo”, Geo Crítica, 99, (1993), pp. 5-55.— “Higienismo y ambientalismo en la medicina decimonónica”, Dynamis, V-VI, (1985), pp. 417- 425.— “Miseria, miasmas y microbios: Las topografías médicas y el estudio del medio ambiente en el siglo xix”, Geo Crítica, 5-29, (1890), pp.1-40.Vallina Rodríguez, A. “La provincia de Salamanca en el siglo xviii”, en El Catastro de Ensenada. Magna averiguación fiscal para alivio de los vasallos y mejor conocimiento de los reinos (1749-1756): Ciudad Rodrigo 1750. Dirección General de Catastro. Ministerio de Hacienda y Función Pública, 2019, pp. 48- 61.Vallina Rodríguez, A. Macedo Ruiz, E. C. y Camarero Bullón, C. “Medical Topographies: Sources for the Evolutionary Study of Territory and Landscape”, Human Geographies, 14-1 (2020), pp. 21-38.

In the article, the works of pre-revolutionary Russian officials and researchers, educational specialists, who considered various issues of Kazakh education, are analyzed in a historiographical sense. A. Alectrov, A.V. Vasiliev, K. Belavin's works and articles on education of Kazakh children in Ural, Torgai, Orynbor regions published in periodicals are analyzed. The researches published in Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation in the Soviet and post-Soviet periods are also analyzed in order to verify the historiographical facts. The content and significance of the works described about the Orynbor Neplyuev cadet corps, the Orynbor paramedic school, the school for Kazakh children under the Orynbor border commission, the Russian-Kazakh primary, two-class village, Kazakh teacher schools in the Orynbor, Ural, Troitsk field fortresses are shown. Information about the territory, population, educational institutions, financing, costs, number of students, age, social composition, division into classes, taught subjects, awarding of scholarships, tuition fees, beliefs of the educational institutions is given in the works. Difficulties in the education of Kazakh children, lack of interest of the colonizing country in the deep education of Kazakh children, the reasons why girls are not attracted to education, etc. problems are identified in the scope of historical data.

This work is devoted to a very little-studied topic of the Virginia Slave Conspiracy led by Gabriel and is the first study of this issue in Russian historiography. The present article analyzes in detail the causes and prerequisites of the failed uprising of 1800. At the same time, the author relies on the published materials of the trial and the works of leading Western researchers. The first part is devoted directly to the history of studying this issue. Using historical-genetic and retrospective methods, the author traces the influence of foreign policy, domestic political, social, economic, demographic, socio-cultural factors on the formation of a socially explosive situation in Virginia by 1800, and also identifies a number of subjective reasons and prerequisites for a slave conspiracy, such as: motives of personal revenge and banal miscalculations of the authorities who did not take proper measures. At the same time, the main emphasis is on comparing approaches and substantiating the complex of causes and prerequisites in Western historiography. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that in the case of Gabriel's conspiracy, it is not just about a failed uprising, but about the emergence in Virginia of the late XVIII – early XIX centuries of a real revolutionary situation, the formation of which was facilitated by a combination of interrelated factors. The results of the research conducted in this article can be used in research and teaching activities related to the study of American history and the history of the African-American people (Black History).

It is now roughly a quarter of a century since the proponents of a new social history of early modern England offered students of the period a novel agenda and an unprecedented opportunity. Prior to the 1960s social history had been variously understood as the history of everyday life, of the lower classes and popular movements, or as a junior partner in the relatively recently-established firm of economic and social history (occupied in the main with the study of social institutions and social policy). As such, it had produced more than a few pioneering works of outstanding quality and lasting value (some of them about to enjoy a revived recognition after decades of relative neglect). But it was not a field close to the centre of historical preoccupation. It was at best contextual, at worst residual.From the early 1960s, however, came a call for a social history of a new type, one conceived as the history of social relationships and of the culture which informs them and gives them meaning. The new agenda was deeply influenced by the social sciences and envisaged an ever closer relationship with sociology, social anthropology and demography. Peter Laslett wrote of ‘sociological history’ or ‘historical sociology’ and Keith Thomas of the need for a ‘more systematic indoctrination’ in the concepts and methodologies of the social sciences. As applied to history, all this was both radical and liberating. In the face of an established curriculum which appeared in many respects restrictive and in some dessicated, it proposed a massive and necessary broadening and deepening of historical concern: the creation of a range of historical enquiry appropriate to the preoccupations and understandings of the late twentieth century.

This essay considers works published by two women writers as Britain was preparing for hostilities against revolutionary France in 1793: a Fast Day sermon, Sins of Government, Sins of the Nation, published anonymously by Anna Barbauld, Charlotte Smith’s novel The Old Manor House, and her blank verse poem The Emigrants. It considers how these works, which condemn the guilt arising from war, expose the problem of necessary acquiescence in what is condemned. Taken together, the writings illuminate two sides of the problem. As a Dissenter, Barbauld belonged to a social group that, during the early years of the French revolution, had reason to feel especially vulnerable to the threat of civil disorder; she therefore had a particular incentive to see the horrors of war abroad in relation to the fear of social unrest at home. For Smith, who identified herself publicly with the landowning classes, and who desired socially appropriate positions for her children, such horrors had to be set against the material opportunities made available by war. In both cases the representation of sympathy for the victims of war provides a way out of the moral impasse they encounter.

In 2022, academia will celebrate 130th anniversary of the outstanding Russian economist Nikolai Kondratiev. Despite the great scholarly interest in Kondratiev’s mature work, his early studies are much less known. This paper analyzes Kondratiev’s economic and political views in 1913-1915, at the time of writing and publishing his first book “The Development of the Economy of Kineshma Zemstvo in Kostroma Province: Socio-Economic and Financial Study”. The article discusses Kondratiev’s views on society and economy in the prerevolutionary period. Kondratiev was a proponent of the positivist approach. The researcher, from Kondratiev’s point of view, should see patterns and trends of development behind facts and figures and not individual features of a specific zemstvo. Kondratiev adopted the Marxist approach to the structure of the social order, but denied the inevitable antagonism of classes. Kondratiev considered zemstvos as an example of effective cooperation of different classes as zemstvo leaders belonging to the noble class took care of the needs of the entire population. Thus, it can be argued that in 1913-1915, Kondratiev adhered to moderate socialist views and argued for gradual social reforms over the revolutionary path. Kondratiev’s approach was not dogmatic and he was open to all kinds of ideas and perspectives, regardless of which side their proponents were on. Nevertheless, he denied the role of individuals in history and saw people’s actions as nothing but a reflection of certain circumstances and class interests. The study of Kondratiev’s mature works will make it possible to better understand the evolution of the views of the outstanding economist, can become the basis for a deeper analysis of his classical works, will give an opportunity to take a new look at the development of domestic economic thought in the first third of the XX century.

The article describes the activities of public educational societies of Ukraine in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. It was found that the period of the second half of the XIX – early XX century was one of the most complex and dynamic in the history of national education. The rapid development of scientific and technological progress and market relations has significantly exacerbated the increase in requirements for general education and training. Public educational activities, which offered new, more democratic and progressive ways of educational evolution, also became significantly more active. Cultural and educational activities of the public in the second half of the XIX – early XX century became extremely relevant and intense. It is established that public educational societies played a significant role in public, social, cultural and educational life in Ukraine in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. They had a similar structure, purpose and were democratic in nature. The main activities of the societies were the support of existing and the opening of new public schools; creation of classes for classes with adults at public schools; publication of textbooks and books for public reading; awarding prizes for the best works for the education of the masses; providing public schools with textbooks at low prices and, if possible, free of charge; arrangement of bookstores at schools; It was found that the success of many societies, their evolution, was determined by the proper organization of society and the contribution of individuals to their activities. Activists of the societies tried to direct their activities in the direction of spreading knowledge among the people in various sciences, which contributed not only to increase the total literate population, but also to the diverse development of the individual. Contribution to the formation and development of public educational societies of Ukraine, public figures, teachers- educators needs further consideration.

Collecting recipes was an established tradition that continued in elite English households throughout the eighteenth century. This thesis is on medical recipes and advice, and it addresses the evolution of recipe collecting from the seventeenth century and throughout the eighteenth century. It investigates elite domestic medicine within a cultural history of medicine framework and uses social and material history approaches to reveal why elites continued to collect medical recipes, given the commercialisation of medicine. This thesis contends that the meaning of domestic medicine must be understood within a wider context of elite healthcare in order to appreciate how the recipe collecting tradition evolved alongside cultural shifts, and shifts within the medical economy. My re-appraisal of the meaning of domestic medicine gives elite healthcare a clearer role within the narrative of the social history of medicine. Elite healthcare was about choice. Wealthy individuals had economic agency in consumerism, and recipe compilers interacted with new sources of information and products; recipe books are evidence of this consumer engagement. In addition to being household objects, recipe books had cultural significance as heirlooms, and as objects of literacy, authority, and creativity. A crucial reason for the continuation of the recipe collecting tradition was due to its continued engagement with cultural attitudes towards social obligation, knowledge exchange, taste, and sociability as an intellectual pursuit. Positioning the household as an important space of creativity, experiment, and innovation, this thesis reinforces domestic medicine as an important part of the interconnected histories of science and medicine. This thesis moreover contributes to the social history of eighteenth-century England by demonstrating the central role domestic medicine had in elite healthcare, and reveals the elite reception of the commercialisation of medicine from a consumer perspective through an investigation of personal records of intellectual pastimes and patient experiences.

Despite what the title suggests, Saskatchewan had a booming sex trade in its early years. The area attracted hundreds of women sex workers before Saskatchewan had even become a province in 1905. They were drawn to the area by the demands of bachelors who dominated Canada's prairie west. According to Saskatchewan's moral reformers, however, the sex trade was a hindrance to the province's Christian potential. They called for its abolishment and headed white slavery campaigns that characterized prostitution as a form of slavery. Their approach stood in contrast with law enforcement's stance on the trade. The police took a tolerant approach, allowing its operation as long as sex workers and their clients remained circumspect. Law enforcement's approach reflected their own propensity to use the services of sex workers as well as community attitudes toward the trade. Some communities were more welcoming of sex workers, while others demanded that police suppress the trade. Saskatchewan's newspapers also reflected differing attitudes toward the trade. While Regina's Leader purveyed a no tolerance view of the sex trade, Saskatoon's Phoenix and Star held more tolerant views. Saskatchewan's newspapers reveal that as the province's population increased and notions of moral reform gained popularity, police were challenged to take a less tolerant approach. However, reformers' efforts to end the sex trade dwindled with the onset of the First World War and attitudes toward sex workers shifted drastically as responsibility for venereal disease was placed largely on women who sold sex. Using government and police records, moral reform and public health documents, and media sources such as newspapers, as well as intersectional analysis of gender, race, class, and ethnicity, this examination of Saskatchewan’s sex trade investigates the histories and social responses to the buying and selling of sex, revealing the complex and, at times, contradictory place of sex workers and the sex trade in Saskatchewan’s early history.

This dissertation re-examines a set of long-standing problems that arise from Aristotle’s defense of kingship in the Politics. Scholars have argued for over a century that Aristotle’s endorsement of sole rule by an individual of outstanding excellence is incompatible with his theory of distributive justice and his very conception of a political community. Previous attempts to resolve this apparent contradiction have failed to ease the deeper tensions between the idea of the polis as a community of free and equal citizens sharing in ruling and being ruled and the vision of absolute kingship in which one man rules over others who are merely ruled. I argue that the so-called “paradox of monarchy” emerges from misconceptions and insufficiently nuanced interpretations of kingship itself and of the more fundamental concepts of community, rule, authority, and citizenship. Properly understood, Aristotelian kingship is not a form of government that concentrates power in the hands of a single individual, but an arrangement in which free citizens willingly invest that individual with a position of supreme authority without themselves ceasing to share in rule. Rather than a muddled appendage tacked on to the Politics out of deference to Macedon or an uncritical adoption of Platonic utopianism, Aristotle’s defense of kingship is a piece of ideal theory that serves in part to undermine the pretensions of actual or would-be monarchs, whether warrior- or philosopher-kings.
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The concept of a system has a long and distinguished history in the social sciences. In fact, Mattelart and Mattelart (1998) claim that “the idea of society as an organism, that is, a whole composed of organs performing predetermined functions, inspired the earliest conceptions of a ‘science of communication’”. We begin this chapter with a brief historical overview of the major systems perspectives that have been utilized in social theory and research: structural-functionalism, cybernetics, and general systems theory. We then apply recent developments in complex systems theories to organizational networks. In doing so, we look at communication and knowledge networks from the perspective of agent-based modeling and self-organizing systems. Mattelart and Mattelart (1998) trace the early growth of systems thinking in the social sciences. Adam Smith’s (1776) classic work, The Wealth of Nations, postulated that a laissez-faire system, the division of labor, and channels of communication and transportation were crucial aspects of economic prosperity. The key to economic and therefore social success was the unrestricted circulation of messages, materials, and money through secure networks. According to Mattelart and Mattelart (1998), Francois Quesnay, a French physician and economist, published an economic chart (tableau economique) in 1758. “The chart offers a macroscopic vision of an economy of ‘flows’ in the form of a geometrical zigzag figure in which the lines expressing exchange between human beings and the land, as well as among the three classes making up society, cut across each other and become intertwined”. The Mattelarts note that Claude Henri de Saint Simon’s eighteenth-century work also applied systems theory to the concept of networks. Saint-Simons’s theory conceived of society as “an organic system, a bundle or fabric of networks.... He attributed strategic importance to the development of a system of communication routes”. Out of this background Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) developed the first integrated theory of society built on a direct analogy with biological systems.