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Journal articles on the topic 'The Milgram experiment'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 10 February 2022

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1

Russell, Nestar. "An Important Milgram-Holocaust Linkage: Formal Rationality." Canadian Journal of Sociology 42, no. 3 (September 29, 2017): 261–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.29173/cjs28291.

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After Stanley Milgram published his first official Obedience to Authority baseline experiment, some scholars drew parallels between his findings and the Holocaust. These comparisons are now termed the Milgram-Holocaust linkage. However, because the Obedience studies have been shown to differ in many ways from the Holocaust’s finer historical details, more recent literature has challenged the linkage. In this article I argue that the Obedience studies and the Holocaust share two commonalities that are so significant that they may negate the importance others have attributed to the differences. These commonalities are (1) an end-goal of maximising “ordinary” people’s participation in harm infliction and (2) a reliance on Weberian formal rational techniques of discovery to achieve this end-goal. Using documents obtained from Milgram’s personal archive at Yale University, this article reveals the means-to-end learning processes Milgram utilised during his pilot studies in order to maximise ordinary people’s participation in harm-infliction in his official baseline experiment. This article then illustrates how certain Nazi innovators relied on the same techniques of discovery during the invention of the Holocaust, more specifically the so-called Holocaust by bullets. In effect, during both the Obedience studies and the Holocaust processes were developed that made, in each case, the undoable doable.

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Morawski, Jill. "Description in the Psychological Sciences." Representations 135, no. 1 (2016): 119–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/rep.2016.135.1.119.

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This essay uses the case of scientific psychology to explore modes of description and the broader objectives underlying these modes, reporting on both the complexities and potentials of psychological description. It examines the description techniques of the classic Milgram experiment and offers a redescription of the resulting data to show both how psychology’s practices of description entail more than objective accounts of observed behavior and how these descriptions can influence the social world and our understandings of ourselves. The case of Stanley Milgram’s experiments in obedience suggest the material and social powers of the descriptions psychologists “give away” for human benefit.

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3

Turowetz, Jason, and Matthew M. Hollander. "From “Ridiculous” to “Glad to Have Helped”: Debriefing News Delivery and Improved Reactions to Science in Milgram’s “Obedience” Experiments." Social Psychology Quarterly 81, no. 1 (March 2018): 71–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0190272518759968.

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Commentators on Milgram’s classic and controversial experiments agree that better integration of theories of “obedience to authority” with current archival research on participants’ viewpoints is essential in explaining compliance. Using conversation analysis, we examine an archived data source that is largely overlooked by the Milgram literature, yet crucial for understanding the interactional organization of participants’ displayed perspectives. In hundreds of interviews conducted immediately after each experiment, participants received one of two types of debriefing: deceptive or full. Analyzing 56 full debriefings from three experimental conditions, we find they featured interactional structuring as news delivery sequences and that debriefing news could transform initially ambivalent or negative assessments of the experiment into positive ones. Such findings reveal limitations of engaged followership, the currently dominant theory of “obedience.” Following discussion of improved assessments’ relevance to public attitudes toward science, we conclude that multiple social psychological processes were at work in producing Milgram’s results.

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4

Pavlenko, V. N. "S. Milgram’s experiment through the lens of historical psychology." Social Psychology and Society 10, no. 3 (2019): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.17759/sps.2019100301.

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The article presents a look at the results of the classical experiment of S. Milgram from the point of view of the theories of B. Porshnev and D. Jaynes. A review of the provisions of both theories that are relevant to the analysis of the experiment of S. Milgram is given. A comparative analysis was carried out. It is shown that both theories postulate the existence in human history of a period when our ancestors were guided in their behavior not by their own motives, goals and objectives, but by other people’s speech commands — either given by real leaders (B. Porshnev), or their “doubles” — voice-hallucinations (D. Jaynes). If we agree with the authors of these theories, the unquestioning obedience to “authority”, demonstrated by the majority of subjects in the experiment of S. Milgram, is in a certain sense a recurrence of those psychological mechanisms and behaviors that existed in a person in that historical era of total suggestion (according to B. Porshnev) or “bicameral mind” (according to D. Jane).

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5

Doliński, Dariusz, Tomasz Grzyb, Michał Folwarczny, Patrycja Grzybała, Karolina Krzyszycha, Karolina Martynowska, and Jakub Trojanowski. "Would You Deliver an Electric Shock in 2015? Obedience in the Experimental Paradigm Developed by Stanley Milgram in the 50 Years Following the Original Studies." Social Psychological and Personality Science 8, no. 8 (March 14, 2017): 927–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693060.

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In spite of the over 50 years which have passed since the original experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram on obedience, these experiments are still considered a turning point in our thinking about the role of the situation in human behavior. While ethical considerations prevent a full replication of the experiments from being prepared, a certain picture of the level of obedience of participants can be drawn using the procedure proposed by Burger. In our experiment, we have expanded it by controlling for the sex of participants and of the learner. The results achieved show a level of participants’ obedience toward instructions similarly high to that of the original Milgram studies. Results regarding the influence of the sex of participants and of the “learner,” as well as of personality characteristics, do not allow us to unequivocally accept or reject the hypotheses offered.

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6

Abbott, Alison. "Modern Milgram experiment sheds light on power of authority." Nature 530, no. 7591 (February 2016): 394–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature.2016.19408.

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7

Farley, Sally D., Deborah H. Carson, and Terrence J. Pope. "“I Would Never Fall for That”: The Use of an Illegitimate Authority to Teach Social Psychological Principles." Teaching of Psychology 46, no. 2 (March 5, 2019): 146–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0098628319834200.

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This activity explores attitudinal beliefs and behavioral responses of obedience to an illegitimate authority figure in an ambiguous situation. In Experiment 1, students either self-reported the likelihood that they would obey a request made by a stranger to surrender their cell phone or were asked directly and in person by a confederate to relinquish their cell phone. The exercise revealed a marked discrepancy between how students predicted they would respond and how they actually did respond to the request. In Experiment 2, student learning was measured in addition to obedience. Although students exposed to the exercise had similar gains in learning as those exposed to a control condition, the mean obedience rate was a compelling 95.7%. Furthermore, students self-reported a greater willingness to obey the commands of an authority figure after learning about the Milgram study than before, thereby acknowledging their vulnerability to authority. We discuss the role of Milgram’s study in the psychology curriculum and provide recommendations for how this exercise might assist understanding of myriad social psychological principles.

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8

Hollander, Matthew M., and Douglas W. Maynard. "Do Unto Others . . . ? Methodological Advance and Self- Versus Other-Attentive Resistance in Milgram’s “Obedience” Experiments." Social Psychology Quarterly 79, no. 4 (August 11, 2016): 355–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0190272516648967.

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We introduce conversation analysis (CA) as a methodological innovation that contributes to studies of the classic Milgram experiment, one allowing for substantive advances in the social psychological “obedience to authority” paradigm. Data are 117 audio recordings of Milgram’s original experimental sessions. We discuss methodological features of CA and then show how CA allows for methodological advances in understanding the Milgramesque situation by treating it as a three-party interactional scene, explicating an interactional dilemma for the “Teacher” subjects, and decomposing categorical outcomes (obedience vs. defiance) into their concrete interactional routes. Substantively, we analyze two kinds of resistance to directives enacted by both obedient and defiant participants, who may orient to how continuation would be troublesome primarily for themselves (self-attentive resistance) or for the person receiving shocks (other-attentive resistance). Additionally, we find that defiant participants mobilize two other-attentive practices almost never used by obedient ones: Golden Rule accounts and “letting the Learner decide.”

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9

Da Costa, Silvia, Gisela Delfino, Marcela Murattori, Elena Zubieta, Lucía García, Dario Páez, Maite Beramendi, and Fernanda Sosa. "Obedience to authority, cognitive and affective responses and leadership style in relation to a non-normative order: the Milgram experiment." Revista de Psicología 39, no. 2 (July 21, 2021): 717–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.18800/psico.202102.008.

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The influence of the context on behavioral and emotional reactions to a war crime situation military cadets (N = 315) is analyzed. The study is based on Milgram’s experience and the tragedy of My Lai.It examines personal and peer obedience to an anti-normative order (asking participants whether they would obey an order to shoot unarmed civilians) in five vignettes or scenarios that reproduce Milgram’s conditions and MyLai scenario. This is an experimental between-within study of five scenarios by two conditions (Milgram, 1974). Personal and collective obedience of other military, emotional reactions and values of Schwartz (2012) were measured. Showing enhancement of self-bias it is reported that the pairs would be more likely to shoot than one would. Replicating Milgrams’s results, obedience is greater when the order is given directly by an authority, and lower when there is conflict between authorities and peers rebel. Confirming that identification with humanity and not just with the in-group may prompt respondents to reject an anti-normative order, values of transcendence of the self are associated with less obedience and congruent emotional reactions. Self-perceived transformational leadership was associated with positive emotions towards peer that disobey to fire. However a transformational style perceived in the superior was associated to positive emotions by respect to soldier who open fire, adding information on the potential dark side of this leadership style. The relevance of personal values, leadership style and affectivity in military context is discussed.

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10

Blass, Thomas. "The Milgram Obedience Experiment: Support for a Cognitive View of Defensive Attribution." Journal of Social Psychology 136, no. 3 (June 1996): 407–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1996.9714020.

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RUSSELL, LUKE. "Is Situationism All Bad News?" Utilitas 21, no. 4 (November 12, 2009): 443–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0953820809990215.

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Situationist experiments such as the Milgram experiment and the Princeton Seminary experiment have prompted philosophers to warn us against succumbing to fear of embarrassment and sliding down slippery slopes. Yet it would be a mistake to conclude that situationism is all bad news for moral agents. Fear of embarrassment can often motivate right actions, and slippery slopes can slide us away from wrongdoing. The reason that philosophers have seen situationism as bringing all bad news is that they have focused on the very demanding moral goals of virtuous and autonomous action, while ignoring important moral goals that are less demanding. Fear of embarrassment does undermine virtuous and autonomous action, but that very same fear can help us to act resolutely and rightly, and allows us to manipulate would-be wrongdoers into doing the right thing. This is good news.

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Lück, Helmut E. "Blass, Thomas (Ed.). (1999). Obedience to authority. Current perspectives on the Milgram experiment." Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO) 31, no. 4 (December 2000): 488–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11612-000-0043-y.

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13

Recuber, Timothy. "From obedience to contagion: Discourses of power in Milgram, Zimbardo, and the Facebook experiment." Research Ethics 12, no. 1 (May 13, 2015): 44–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747016115579533.

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14

Mitina, O. V., and A. Y. Voronov. "NON-TRIVIALITY OF THE RESULTS OF MILGRAM FIELD EXPERIMENT IN MOSCOW AND NEW YORK SUBWAY." RUDN Journal of Psychology and Pedagogics 14, no. 3 (2017): 255–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.22363/2313-1683-2017-14-3-255-272.

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Blass, Thomas. "Understanding behavior in the Milgram obedience experiment: The role of personality, situations, and their interactions." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 3 (March 1991): 398–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.398.

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Jorjafki, Elham Mohammadi, Brad J. Sagarin, and Sachit Butail. "Drawing power of virtual crowds." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 15, no. 145 (August 2018): 20180335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2018.0335.

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In 1969, social psychologist Milgram and his colleagues conducted an experiment on a busy city street where passers-by witnessed a set of actors spontaneously looking up towards a building. The experiment showed that the crowd's propensity to mimic the actor's gaze increased with the number of actors that looked up. This form of behavioural contagion is found in many social organisms and is central to how information travels through large groups. With the advancement of virtual reality and its continued application towards understanding human response to crowd behaviour, it remains to be verified if behavioural contagion occurs in walkable virtual environments, and how it compares with results from real-world experiments. In this study, we adapt Milgram's experiment for virtual environments and use it to reproduce behavioural contagion. Specifically, we construct a replica of an indoor location and combine two established pedestrian motion models to create an interactive crowd of 60 virtual characters that walk through the indoor location. The stimulus group comprised a subset of the characters who look up at a random time as the participants explore the virtual environment. Our results show that the probability of looking up by a participant is dependent on the size of the stimulus group saturating to near certainty when three or more characters look up. The role of stimulus size was also evident when participant actions were compared with survey responses which showed that more participants selected to not look up even though they saw characters redirect their gaze upwards when the size of the stimulus group was small. Participants also spent more time looking up and exhibited frequent head turns with a larger stimulus group. Results from this study provide evidence that behavioural contagion can be triggered in the virtual environment, and can be used to build and test complex hypotheses for understanding human behaviour in a variety of crowd scenarios.

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Dambrun, Michaël, Johan Lepage, and Stéphanie Fayolle. "Victims’ Dehumanization and the Alteration of Other-Oriented Empathy within the Immersive Video Milgram Obedience Experiment." Psychology 05, no. 17 (2014): 1941–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.517197.

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Pucciarelli, Francesca, Chiara Giachino, Bernardo Bertoldi, and Davide Tamagno. "A small world experiment in the digital era: Can sWOM be used by start uppers to reach a target?" MERCATI & COMPETITIVITÀ, no. 1 (April 2019): 103–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3280/mc1-2019oa7635.

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The rapid growth of Web 2.0 coupled with its unique capabilities has increasingly captured the attention of scholars and practitioners, and the list of benefits for companies of any age, size, and geography is continuously accrued by new evidences. This paper contributes to the literature in the field by investigating the potential impact of social media, and especially of social Word-of-Mouth (sWOM), in boosting start-ups growth. This study applies an original approach on the topic, by replicating the Small World Experiment of Milgram. An empirical experiment of information diffusion process in the ESCP Europe community - chosen as example of a determined and closed social network, composed by a lot of start uppers - enabled authors to demonstrate that interconnected communities can enhance the WOM effect and consequently can represent an effective tool to help people looking for opportunities, such as start uppers, to reach a specific target; in the dissemination process if super-connectors play a substantial role, and weak ties help in further diffuse the message, on the contrary monetary incentive are not important.

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Bovina, I. B., N. V. Dvoryanchikov, and S. V. Budykin. "Information security of children and adolescents in understanding parents and teachers." Psychology and Law 5, no. 3 (2015): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17759/psylaw.2015050301.

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The article presents the first part of the work devoted to the study of ordinary representations of parents and teachers about information security of children and adolescents. It is about addressing the problem of information security of children and adolescents, discuss the effects of observing violence in the mass media on the subsequent behaviour of viewers, refers to directing television roles on the example of transfer schemes by S. Milgram in the context of television game (experiment J. L. Beauvois with colleagues). This paper examines the impact on users has the Internet, discusses the main directions of action in relation to ensuring information security of children and adolescents, focusing on psychological aspects of the concept of information security of children, demonstrates the importance of studying "naive theories" that govern the actions aimed at ensuring information security of children. The authors explain the prospect of studying problems of information security of children in the framework of the theory of social representations.

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20

Kimmelman, Jonathan. "Beyond Human Subjects: Risk, Ethics, and Clinical Development of Nanomedicines." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 40, no. 4 (2012): 841–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-720x.2012.00712.x.

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Like all policies, contemporary human research policies are the product of their history. The scandals and traumas motivating their creation — the Nazi doctors trials, Tuskegee, the Milgram experiment on obedience — however different in their particulars, all share a common narrative: a scientist, pursuing valued social ends, runs roughshod over the personal interests of disadvantaged human subjects. From the Nuremberg code through the latest revisions of the Declaration of Helsinki, research ethics policies have sought to erect a sphere of protection around the latter.As a consequence of this history, all major policies start with a well-rehearsed model of human investigations. Clinical research is viewed as an encounter between investigators and volunteers. The clinical investigator is given certain duties. The human volunteer has certain moral entitlements. What is ethically at stake in human investigations inheres in the nature and quality of the interactions between investigators and volunteers. These interactions involve an asymmetry because the investigator has privileged knowledge and influence.

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Tarnow, Eugen. "The Social Engineering Solution to Preventing the Murder in the Milgram Experiment~!2008-09-08~!2008-10-27~!2008-11-28~!" Open Ethics Journal 2, no. 1 (December 1, 2008): 34–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874761200802010034.

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Eifler, Stefanie. "Validity of a Factorial Survey Approach to the Analysis of Criminal Behavior." Methodology 6, no. 3 (January 2010): 139–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241/a000015.

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The study presented here deals with two aspects of the validity of a factorial survey approach ( Rossi & Anderson, 1982 ). This technique is applied to the analysis of crime in everyday life from the perspective of a rational choice approach ( Cornish & Clarke, 1986 ). The situation of “lost letters” (Milgram, Mann, & Harter, 1965) is regarded as an opportunity to display criminal behaviors within the routine activities of everyday life. The study features this situation and focuses on situational influences upon keeping “lost” letters. According to the theoretical framework, the effort and the utility of keeping a “lost” letter are manipulated on the basis of a 2 × 3 design. The study aims at a systematic analysis of the empirical validity and the construct validity of the factorial survey approach. It compares data from a factorial survey (n = 881) with data from a field experiment (n = 395) using an equal study design. The results of the study reveal restrictions of the empirical validity of the factorial survey. Influences of the utility of a “lost” letter are equal across the factorial survey and the field experiment and support the idea of construct validity. In addition to these influences, differences between data collection methods occur which indicate a susceptibility to social desirable responses in a lost letter framework. This result is discussed with regard to the underlying research questions and methodological implications.

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Holmes, Marcia, and Daniel Pick. "Voices off: Stanley Milgram’s cyranoids in historical context." History of the Human Sciences 32, no. 5 (September 24, 2019): 28–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0952695119867021.

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This article revisits a forgotten, late project by the social psychologist Stanley Milgram: the ‘cyranoid’ studies he conducted from 1977 to 1984. These investigations, inspired by the play Cyrano de Bergerac, explored how individuals often fail to notice when others do not speak their own thoughts, but instead relay messages from a hidden source. We situate these experiments amidst the intellectual, cultural, and political concerns of late Cold War America, and show how Milgram’s studies pulled together a variety of ideas, anxieties, and interests that were prevalent at that time and have returned in new guises since. In discussing the cyranoid project’s background and afterlife, we argue that its strikingly equivocal quality has lent itself to multiple reinterpretations by historians, psychologists, performers, artists, and others. Our purpose is neither to champion Milgram’s work nor to amplify the critiques already made of his methods. Rather, it is to consider the uncertain, allusive, and elusive aspects of the cyranoid project, and to seek to place that project in context, whilst asking where ‘context’ might end. We show how the experiments’ range of meanings, in different temporal registers, far exceeded the explanatory rubric that Milgram and his intellectual critics provided at that time, and ponder the risk for the historian of making anachronistic or teleological assumptions. In short, we argue, cyranoids invite our open-ended exploration of ‘voices offstage’ in social and psychological relations, and offer a useful tool for thinking about historical context and the nature of historical interpretations.

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Elsisy, Amr, Boleslaw K. Szymanski, Jasmine A. Plum, Miao Qi, and Alex Pentland. "A partial knowledge of friends of friends speeds social search." PLOS ONE 16, no. 8 (August 19, 2021): e0255982. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255982.

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Milgram empirically showed that people knowing only connections to their friends could locate any person in the U.S. in a few steps. Later research showed that social network topology enables a node aware of its full routing to find an arbitrary target in even fewer steps. Yet, the success of people in forwarding efficiently knowing only personal connections is still not fully explained. To study this problem, we emulate it on a real location-based social network, Gowalla. It provides explicit information about friends and temporal locations of each user useful for studies of human mobility. Here, we use it to conduct a massive computational experiment to establish new necessary and sufficient conditions for achieving social search efficiency. The results demonstrate that only the distribution of friendship edges and the partial knowledge of friends of friends are essential and sufficient for the efficiency of social search. Surprisingly, the efficiency of the search using the original distribution of friendship edges is not dependent on how the nodes are distributed into space. Moreover, the effect of using a limited knowledge that each node possesses about friends of its friends is strongly nonlinear. We show that gains of such use grow statistically significantly only when this knowledge is limited to a small fraction of friends of friends.

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Lüttke, Hans B. "Experimente unter dem Milgram-Paradigma." Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO) 35, no. 4 (December 2004): 431–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11612-004-0040-7.

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Herrera, C. D. "Ethics, Deception, and 'Those Milgram Experiments'." Journal of Applied Philosophy 18, no. 3 (January 2001): 245–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-5930.00192.

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Canto Ortiz, Jesús M., and José L. Álvaro. "Más allá de la obediencia: reanálisis de la investigación de Milgram." Escritos de Psicología - Psychological Writings 8, no. 1 (May 1, 2015): 13–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.24310/espsiescpsi.v8i1.13222.

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Los experimentos de Milgram sobre la obediencia a la autoridad son considerados una de las investigaciones más importantes de la psicología social. Su impacto ha abarcado tanto a la psicología social como a otras ramas de la psicología, incluidas otras ciencias sociales. En este trabajo se analiza la influencia recíproca de la investigación de Milgram y el concepto de la banalidad del mal de Arendt. Se critica el modelo teórico propuesto por Milgram y el concepto de la banalidad del mal de Arendt. No hay ninguna demostración empírica de la existencia del estado agén-tico y de la relación entre éste y los niveles de obediencia obtenidos en los experimentos de Milgram. Además, obras recientes sobre el Holocausto no confirman que las acciones criminales de los líderes nazis se debieran a actos de obediencia debida. Son necesarios modelos teóricos como el que se basa en la perspectiva de la identidad social para explicar los datos obtenidos en el experimento de Milgram.

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Canto, Jesús M., and Macarena Vallejo-Martín. "Revisitando el concepto de la banalidad del mal desde la perspectiva del liderazgo de identidad." Escritos de Psicología - Psychological Writings 13, no. 1 (July 1, 2020): 34–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.24310/espsiescpsi.v13i1.10080.

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El concepto de la banalidad del mal ha sido utilizado para explicar la maldad humana. Este concepto ha sido muy influyente en la psicología social y en el resto de las ciencias sociales. Los resultados obtenidos en los experimentos de Milgram sobre obediencia y en el experimento de la prisión de Stanford (EPS) han sido considerados como muestras de apoyo empírico al concepto de la banalidad del mal. Pero este concepto está recibiendo importantes críticas desde la historia y desde la propia psicología social. El reanálisis de los estudios de Milgram y del EPS no apoya las formulaciones teóricas clásicas formuladas por Milgram y Zimbardo. La variabilidad de los niveles de obediencia en los experimentos de Milgram y en el comportamiento mostrado por los guardias y prisioneros en el EPS requieren otro modelo teórico explicativo de tales resultados. Enmarcados dentro de la perspectiva de la identidad social, Haslam y Reicher proponen que el papel del liderazgo de identidad es un concepto clave para explicar los resultados obtenidos en estos estudios.

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Perry, Gina, Augustine Brannigan, Richard A. Wanner, and Henderikus Stam. "Credibility and Incredulity in Milgram’s Obedience Experiments: A Reanalysis of an Unpublished Test." Social Psychology Quarterly 83, no. 1 (August 22, 2019): 88–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0190272519861952.

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This article analyzes variations in subject perceptions of pain in Milgram’s obedience experiments and their behavioral consequences. Based on an unpublished study by Milgram’s assistant, Taketo Murata, we report the relationship between the subjects’ belief that the learner was actually receiving painful electric shocks and their choice of shock level. This archival material indicates that in 18 of 23 variations of the experiment, the mean levels of shock for those who fully believed that they were inflicting pain were lower than for subjects who did not fully believe they were inflicting pain. These data suggest that the perception of pain inflated subject defiance and that subject skepticism inflated their obedience. This analysis revises our perception of the classical interpretation of the experiment and its putative relevance to the explanation of state atrocities, such as the Holocaust. It also raises the issue of dramaturgical credibility in experiments based on deception. The findings are discussed in the context of methodological questions about the reliability of Milgram’s questionnaire data and their broader theoretical relevance.

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Badhwar, Neera K. "The Milgram Experiments, Learned Helplessness, and Character Traits." Journal of Ethics 13, no. 2-3 (June 3, 2009): 257–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10892-009-9052-4.

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MORELLI, MARIO. "PHILOSOPHERS AND EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY: A REPLY TO MILGRAM." Metaphilosophy 16, no. 1 (January 1985): 66–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9973.1985.tb00153.x.

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Pangburn, Keith, Steven Freund, Holly Pangburn, and Kip Smith. "Beyond Milgram: An Experimental Study of Leader Presence." Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 47, no. 3 (October 2003): 364–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/154193120304700324.

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Slater, Mel, Angus Antley, Adam Davison, David Swapp, Christoph Guger, Chris Barker, Nancy Pistrang, and Maria V. Sanchez-Vives. "A Virtual Reprise of the Stanley Milgram Obedience Experiments." PLoS ONE 1, no. 1 (December 20, 2006): e39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000039.

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Haslam, Nick, Steve Loughnan, and Gina Perry. "Meta-Milgram: An Empirical Synthesis of the Obedience Experiments." PLoS ONE 9, no. 4 (April 4, 2014): e93927. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093927.

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35

Smeulers, Alette. "Milgram Revisited: Can We still Use Milgram’s ‘Obedience to Authority’ Experiments to Explain Mass Atrocities after the Opening of the Archives? Review Essay." Journal of Perpetrator Research 3, no. 1 (May 5, 2020): 216. http://dx.doi.org/10.21039/jpr.3.1.45.

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36

Blass, Thomas. "Attribution of Responsibility and Trust in the Milgram Obedience Experiment1." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 26, no. 17 (September 1996): 1529–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb00084.x.

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37

Bagley, Christopher. "Urban Crowding and the Murder Rate in Bombay, India." Perceptual and Motor Skills 69, no. 3_suppl (December 1989): 1241–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1989.69.3f.1241.

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Despite extremely high levels of household crowding and population density, Bombay has a low rate of murder in comparison with less crowded US cities, disconfirming the 1970 hypothesis of Milgram. In Bombay, degree of crowding in 71 residential districts was unrelated to the murder rate.

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38

Bagley, Christopher. "Urban Crowding and the Murder Rate in Bombay, India." Perceptual and Motor Skills 69, no. 3-2 (December 1989): 1241–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00315125890693-232.

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Despite extremely high levels of household crowding and population density, Bombay has a low rate of murder in comparison with less crowded US cities, discontinuing the 1970 hypothesis of Milgram. In Bombay, degree of crowding in 71 residential districts was unrelated to the murder rate.

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39

Miller, Arthur G., Barry E. Collins, and Diana E. Brief. "Perspectives on Obedience to Authority: The Legacy of the Milgram Experiments." Journal of Social Issues 51, no. 3 (October 1995): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1995.tb01331.x.

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40

Carroy, Jacqueline. "Foules expérimentales, psychologie des foules et psychologie sociale expérimentale de Bernheim à Milgram / Experimental crowds, crowd psychology and social experimental psychology from Bernheim to Milgram." Sociétés contemporaines 13, no. 1 (1993): 167–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/socco.1993.1109.

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41

Hollander, Paul. "Revisiting the Banality of Evil: Contemporary Political Violence and the Milgram Experiments." Society 53, no. 1 (January 4, 2016): 56–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12115-015-9973-4.

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42

Gibson, Stephen. "Milgram's obedience experiments: A rhetorical analysis." British Journal of Social Psychology 52, no. 2 (October 18, 2011): 290–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02070.x.

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43

Gilead, Amihud. "Stanley Milgram’s Experiments and the Saving of the Possibility of Disobedience." Journal of Social Sciences 12, no. 2 (February 1, 2016): 88–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.3844/jssp.2016.88.98.

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44

McArthur, Dan. "Good Ethics Can Sometimes Mean Better Science: Research Ethics and the Milgram Experiments." Science and Engineering Ethics 15, no. 1 (August 15, 2008): 69–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11948-008-9083-4.

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45

Oo, Bee Lan. "Release of Construction Clients’ Pre-tender Cost Estimates: An Experimental Study." Construction Economics and Building 17, no. 4 (December 7, 2017): 37–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.5130/ajceb.v17i4.5793.

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Clients engage consultant quantity surveyors or cost engineers to perform project cost estimates before calling for tender submissions. This experimental study examines the impact of releasing the clients’ pre-tender cost estimates prior to bidding on student subjects’ bidding behavioural patterns, and the extents to which their bidding tends to agree with the behavioural patterns proposed by Milgrom and Weber’s theory. The results show that the provision of clients’ pre-tender cost estimates prior to bidding does affect bidders’ bidding behaviour. Bidders with access to the clients’ pre-tender cost estimates prior to bidding, on average, recorded lower bids than those with no access to the estimate. However, the lower average bids do not result in statistically significant lower winning bids. These findings provide evidence in support of Milgrom and Weber’s theory, demonstrating the practicality of an experimental approach using student subjects for testing theories in building economics research. The practical implication is that construction clients would need to consider their information policy on releasing pre-tender cost estimates to enhance efficiency in their procurement for construction services.

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46

Srivastava, Vishist, and Prakhar Raj. "Milgram’s Experiment and Gender Biases in Indian Context." Journal of Management & Public Policy 12, no. 1 (January 3, 2021): 38–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.47914/jmpp.2020.v12i1.003.

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47

Srivastava, Vishist, and Prakhar Raj. "Milgram’s Experiment and Gender Biases in Indian Context." Journal of Management & Public Policy 12, no. 1 (January 3, 2021): 38–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.47914/jmpp.2020.v12i1.003.

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48

Blass, Thomas. "From New Haven to Santa Clara: A historical perspective on the Milgram obedience experiments." American Psychologist 64, no. 1 (2009): 37–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014434.

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49

Jerryson, Michael. "Religious Violence as Emergency Mindset." Journal of Religion and Violence 9, no. 1 (2021): 33–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/jrv20214684.

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Religion and violence are both ambiguous categories but in the cultural mosaic that pits human against human, religion is a reoccurring justifier. There is no religion exempt from this tendency toward violence. Further, based on Milgram and Zimbardo’s experiments with students who were convinced that it was necessary to inflict torture on subjects for the greater good, it is apparent that ordinary people may commit heinous acts, given a sense of overarching emergency. Examples of religiously justified atrocities and violent rhetoric are summarized in this essay. In each case there is the mindset that violence is justified due to an extraordinary set of circumstances which require the suspension of behavioral norms.

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Gibson, Stephen. "Developing psychology’s archival sensibilities: Revisiting Milgram’s ‘obedience’ experiments." Qualitative Psychology 4, no. 1 (February 2017): 73–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/qup0000040.

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