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1
YAMAMOTO, KAZUHIDE, and KAZUTERU OHASHI. "Paraphrasing Verbal Noun Phrases into Compound Nouns." Journal of Natural Language Processing 12, no. 3 (2005): 19–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5715/jnlp.12.3_19.
2
Mondini, Sara, Giorgio Arcara, and Carlo Semenza. "Lexical and Buffer Effects in Reading and in Writing Noun-Noun Compound Nouns." Behavioural Neurology 25, no. 3 (2012): 245–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/298306.
3
Ab Rahman, Suhaimi, Nazlia Omar, and Mohd Juzaiddin Ab Aziz. "Extraction of Compound Nouns in Malay Noun Phrases Using a Noun Phrase Frame Structure." Asia-Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia 03, no. 01 (June 30, 2014): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/apjitm-2014-0301-03.
4
Nakagawa, Hiroshi, and Tatsunori Mori. "Automatic term recognition based on statistics of compound nouns and their components." Terminology 9, no. 2 (December 31, 2003): 201–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/term.9.2.04nak.
Анотація:
In this paper, we propose a new approach to enhance automatic recognition systems for domain-specific terms. The approach is based on the statistics about the relation between a compound noun and its constituents that are simple nouns. More precisely, we focus on how many nouns adjoin the noun in question to form compound nouns. We propose several scoring methods based on this approach and experimentally evaluate them on the NTCIR1 TMREC test collection. The results are very promising, especially in low and high recall.
5
Zakhtser, E. M. "An Introduction to Teaching English Compound Nouns in EFL." Humanities and Social Sciences. Bulletin of the Financial University 9, no. 6 (February 10, 2020): 125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.26794/2226-7867-2019-9-6-125-132.
Анотація:
Native speakers of English accept and use noun + noun compound nouns so readily and naturally, that they fail to notice the grammatical incongruity of using one noun to describe another. Learners of English whose native languages have a stricter grammatical basis than English find these constructions not merely difficult to use — but puzzling, and apparently ‘wrong’. This paper aims to correct this position by providing extensive illustrations from everyday English speech to describe how commonplace, such constructions are (and how, in many cases, there is no alternative to using them) — alongside a methodological guide to forming and using compound nouns, with particular reference to their use in the banking, financial and insurance industries in which many learners hope to make their careers. Teaching this topic is currently poorly supported in standard teaching materials — even excellent, and widely-used EFL textbooks make no mention at all of this very commonly-used structure. Compound nouns stand in dire need of an academic pedigree to support them. The paper reviews the two primary kinds of compound nouns found in English (Attributive, and Contextual), with working examples illustrating their varying usages.
6
YOON, JUNTAE. "Compound noun segmentation based on lexical data extracted from corpus." Natural Language Engineering 7, no. 2 (June 2001): 167–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1351324901002637.
Анотація:
Compound noun segmentation is one of the crucial problems in Korean language processing because a series of nouns in Korean may appear without space in real text, which makes it difficult to identify its morphological constituents. This paper presents an effective method of Korean compound noun segmentation based on lexical data extracted from a corpus. The segmentation consists of two tasks: First, it uses a Hand-Build Segmentation Dictionary (HBSD) to segment compound nouns which frequently occur or need an exceptional process. Second, a segmentation algorithm using data from a corpus is proposed, where simple nouns and their frequencies are stored in a Simple Noun Dictionary (SND) for segmentation. The analysis is executed based on modified tabular parsing using min-max operation. Our experiments have shown a very effective accuracy rate of about 97.29%, which turns out to be very effective.
7
Melnyk, Yuliia. "NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND VERBS AS COMPONENTS OF GERMAN COMPOUND WORDS: РECULIARITIES OF SEMANTICS AND COMBINATION". Germanic Philology Journal of Yuriy Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University, № 831-832 (2021): 198–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/gph2021.831-832.198-218.
Анотація:
In the article semantic features of nouns, adjectives, and verbs as components of German determinative compound words with the models “noun + noun”, “adjective + noun”, “verb + noun” are investigated using three functional styles (belletristic, publicistic and scientific). Their lexico-semantic subclasses (34 subclasses of nouns, 14 of adjectives and 19 of verbs) were singled out and taken for the further analysis of combination of components in compound words. Using traditional methods (analysis by direct components, transformation analysis, modelling method and analysis of components or sems), as well as quantitative (chi-square criterion and coefficient K) some features of compatibility have been analyzed and its main characteristics have been identified. In this respect, the compatibility ratio of the registered models to the theoretically expected ones has been elucidated. Its intensity has been proved to be determined by the coefficient K and shows the strength of the connection between the components, as well as the number of stable connections. It was established that the model "noun + noun" is characterized by the broadest combinatory range (0.8), thus demonstrating the high activity and popularity of compound nouns of this type in the most lexico-semantic subclasses. Stable connections between components are fixed in all of the models under study, however their quantity and intensity differ. Thus, most stable connections are in a model "noun + noun" (14% of total number of the fixed models), the most powerful connection (K = 0.27) in LSS of nouns “Plants” + LSS of nouns “Plants” and LSS of adjectives “Belonging” + LSS of nouns “State, its attributes”. The research has also proved that semantic identity or congruence of components, when units of the same LSS are combined in one model or consistency is observed between them.
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MCGREGOR, KARLA K., GWYNETH C. ROST, LING YU GUO, and LI SHENG. "What compound words mean to children with specific language impairment." Applied Psycholinguistics 31, no. 3 (June 4, 2010): 463–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s014271641000007x.
Анотація:
ABSTRACTSixteen children (17 age mates, 17 vocabulary mates) with specific language impairment (SLI) participated in two studies. In the first, they named fantasy objects. All groups coined novel noun–noun compounds on a majority of trials but only the SLI group had difficulty ordering the nouns as dictated by semantic context. In the second study, the children described the meaning of conventional noun–noun compounds. The SLI and AM groups did not differ in parsing the nouns, but the SLI group was poorer at explaining the semantic relationships between them. Compared to vocabulary mates, a larger proportion of the SLI group successfully parsed the compounds but a smaller proportion could explain them. These difficulties may reflect problems in the development of links within the semantic lexicon.
9
Clark, Eve V., and Ruth A. Berman. "Types of linguistic knowledge: interpreting and producing compound nouns." Journal of Child Language 14, no. 3 (October 1987): 547–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s030500090001028x.
Анотація:
ABSTRACTThe present study examined the types of linguistic knowledge that affect children's ability to understand and produce novel compounds in Hebrew. Sixty children aged 3;0–9;0, and 12 adults, were asked to interpret and to produce novel Noun + Noun compounds. Their comprehension was in advance of their production. In comprehension, morphological form of head nouns had little effect: from age four, children did equally well on all the compound forms tested; they identified head nouns and also possible relations between heads and their modifiers. In production, though, knowledge of morphological form was crucial. The fewer the changes children had to make in the forms of head nouns, the earlier they mastered that compound pattern. Finally, children who produced novel compounds correctly were also able to interpret novel compounds, but not vice versa.
10
Nakagawa, Hiroshi. "Automatic term recognition based on statistics of compound nouns." Terminology 6, no. 2 (December 31, 2000): 195–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/term.6.2.05nak.
Анотація:
The NTCIR1 TMREC group called for participation of the term recognition task which is a part of NTCIR1 held in 1999. As an activity of TMREC, they have provided us with the test collection of the term recognition task. The goal of this task is to automatically recognize and extract terms from the text corpus which consists of 1,870 abstracts gathered from the NACSIS Academic Conference Database. This article describes the term extraction method we have proposed to extract terms consisting of simple and compound nouns and the experimental evaluation of the proposed method with this NTCIR TMREC test collection. The basic idea of scoring a simple noun N of our term extraction method is to count how many nouns are conjoined with N to make compound nouns. Then we extend this score to measure the score of compound nouns because most of technical terms are compound nouns. Our method has a parameter to tune the degree of preference either for longer compound nouns or for shorter compound nouns. As for term candidates, in addition to noun sequences, we may add variations such as patterns of "A no B" that roughly means "B of A" or "A’ś B" and/or "A na B" where "A na" is an adjective. Experimental results of our method are promising, namely recall of 0.83, precision of 0.46 and F-value of 0.59 for exactly matched extracted terms when we take into account top scoring 16,000 extracted terms.
11
Li, Hong Zheng, He Zhou, and Yao Hong Jin. "A Method for Identifying V+N Compound Nouns in Patent Machine Translation." Applied Mechanics and Materials 513-517 (February 2014): 4617–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.513-517.4617.
Анотація:
In this paper, we introduced one kind of special compound noun in Chinese patent texts composed of verb and noun, and presented a rule-based method for Chinese-English patent Machine Translation (MT) to improve the identification of compound nouns, with the purpose of decreasing the possibilities that verbs may disturb the identification of core predicate verb. The system first tagged different weights on verbs then determined the properties of verbs and recognized the compounds according to the weights. We then conducted experiments with the method, which proved that the method could identify compound nouns efficiently.
12
Korol, Svitlana. "COMPOUND NOUNS IN GERMAN LANGUAGE." Naukovì zapiski Nacìonalʹnogo unìversitetu «Ostrozʹka akademìâ». Serìâ «Fìlologìâ» 1, no. 10(78) (February 27, 2020): 124–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.25264/2519-2558-2020-10(78)-124-127.
Анотація:
The article deals with one of the most common types of word formation in German as word compounding. Compound nouns have become the object of study, as this part of the language leads the way in the formation of new words in this way. The relevance of the research is reinforced by the fact that German compound nouns differ by their multicomponent structure and are in the process of regular growth of their numbers, so they are attracting the attention of Germanists of different generations continuously. The study has examined the nature of the component composition of composites, the types of bonding between components, the types of constituent components, the role of the connecting element, the syllable’s accentuation of components of the compound noun etc. The compound can be built from nouns, adjectives, verbs or an invariable element (prepositions). There is no limit of the number of the associated words. The last word in the compound always determines the gender and plural form of the compound noun. The connectors or linking elements in existing German compound words often correspond to old case endings (e.g., plural, genitive). These endings expressed the relationship of the compound parts to one another. The article considers the causes of the formation of complex nouns. Compounds make the German language more flexible. In general, compounds are used to convey more information in one word and for reasons of language economy. Special attention deserves such a phenomenon as Denglish. This is the mashing of words from the two languages to create new hybrid words.
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SPENCER, ANDREW. "What's in a compound?" Journal of Linguistics 47, no. 2 (June 3, 2011): 481–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022226710000411.
Анотація:
The Oxford Handbook of Compoundingsurveys a variety of theoretical and descriptive issues, presenting overviews of compounding in a number of frameworks and sketches of compounding in a number of languages. Much of the book deals with Germanic noun–noun compounding. I take up some of the theoretical questions raised surrounding such constructions, in particular, the notion of attributive modification in noun-headed compounds. I focus on two issues. The first is the semantic relation between the head noun and its nominal modifier. Several authors repeat the argument that there is a small(-ish) fixed number of general semantic relations in noun–noun compounds (‘Lees's solution’), but I argue that the correct way to look at such compounds is what I call ‘Downing's solution’, in which we assume that the relation is specified pragmatically, and hence could be any relation at all. The second issue is the way that adjectives modify nouns inside compounds. Although there are languages in which compounded adjectives modify just as they do in phrases (Chukchee, Arleplog Swedish), in general the adjective has a classifier role and not that of a compositional attributive modifier. Thus, even if an English (or German) adjective–noun compound looks compositional, it isn't.
14
Musehane, Nelson Mbulaheni. "Root compound nouns in Tshivenḓa". South African Journal of African Languages 24, № 4 (січень 2004): 236–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2004.10587240.
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Sisvinda, Felix Stefani. "ENGLISH COMPOUND WORDS USED IN THE JAKARTA POST HEALTH COLUMN ON THIRD WEEK OF APRIL 2020." PROJECT (Professional Journal of English Education) 4, no. 4 (July 12, 2021): 651. http://dx.doi.org/10.22460/project.v4i4.p651-664.
Анотація:
This study aims to describe the formation and the meaning of compound words that related to COVID-19 pandemics used in The Jakarta Post’s Health Column Article on Third Week of April 2020. There are two research question in this study: (1) What are the type of COVID-19 compound words and their lexical categories found in The Jakarta Post’s Health Column Article on Third Week of April 2020, and (2) How does those related COVID-19 compound words create meaning. To answer the research question, the writer uses the theory of morphology and semantics. The findings showed that there are 26 compound words in The Jakarta Post’s Health Column on the third week of April 2020. Based on the type of compound words, there are 86.4% compound noun, 11.5% compound adjective, and 3.9% compound verb. The most dominant lexical category is from compound nouns which are Noun+Noun and Adjective + Noun. Based on the meaning of compound words, there are are 80.76% endocentric compounds and 19.24% exocentric compounds.Keywords: Compound words, COVID-19, Morphology, Semantics
16
Blanco, Xavier. "Noms Composés et Traduction Français-Espagnol." Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 21, no. 2 (January 1, 1997): 321–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.21.2.04bla.
Анотація:
Compound nouns are independent lexical units and, therefore, they can not be directly translated on the basis of the translation equivalents of their constitutive units. In this article we propose a typology of translation divergences for compound nouns on the basis of a corpus of 25,000 translation equivalents French-Spanish. This typology take into account, on one hand, the 'transparence' degree in translation and, on the other hand, the differences between a French compound noun and its Spanish equivalent concerning the morphological form of this compound, the gender and number of its constituent units and the determination. It was observed that more than 25% of equivalent units in translation have some kind of divergence.
17
Ariskina, T. P. "Word-formation of compound nouns with a subordinate connection in the Erzya and Hungarian languages." Bulletin of Ugric studies 11, no. 1 (2021): 7–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.30624/2220-4156-2021-11-1-7-15.
Анотація:
Introduction: at present the oldest and most productive way of word formation – stem-composition in agglutinative languages – lies in the basis of the processes of formation of the grammatical system. Therefore, the study of new words, created in this way, is a relevant topic. It is especially important to pay attention to historical and comparative stemcomposition, which can serve as a good basis for expanding theoretical knowledge and activation of typological research in word formation. Objective: based on the methods of statistical analysis, to identify common and different features in the ways of formation of compound nouns based on the subordinate connection in the Erzya and Hungarian languages. Research materials: bilingual dictionaries: Erzya-Russian (edited by B. A. Serebrennikov, R. N. Buzakova M. V. Mosin) and Hungarian-Russian by L. Gáldi and P. Uzonyi.,Results and novelty of the research: in the Erzya and Hungarian languages, the formation of compound nouns on the basis of a subordinate connection is a productive way of word formation. Determinatives (or composites) are formed by attaching the main form of a defining noun to a defined noun. They are classified according to belonging of the first component to a part of speech. The largest group is compound words with the first noun component. It is productive to use an adjective as the first component of the name. A group of words, where the first component is a participle, an adverb, or a numeral name is small. In the Erzya language, there are few compound nouns consisting of three components, whereas in the Hungarian language it is a large group. In the process of word formation, morphological changes can be observed. The scientific novelty of the research is the detailed analysis of compound nouns based on the base of a subordinate connection in the Erzya and Hungarian languages on the material of dictionaries: Erzyan-ruzon valks = Erzya-Russian dictionary, Magyar-orosz szótár = Hungarian-Russian dictionary.
18
Sinha, Yash. "Hindi nominal suffixes are bimorphemic: A Distributed Morphology analysis." Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 3, no. 1 (March 3, 2018): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4301.
Анотація:
This paper provides a Distributed Morphology (DM) analysis for Hindi nominal (noun and adjectival) inflection. Contra Singh & Sarma (2010), I argue that nominal suffixes contain two morphemes – a basic morpheme, and a restrictedly distributed additional morpheme. The presence of two different morphemes is especially evident when one compares noun and adjectival inflectional suffixes, which Singh & Sarma (2010) do not, since they only look at noun inflection. I also show that the so-called adjectival inflectional suffixes are not limited to adjectives, and may occur on nouns, provided the noun is not at the right edge of the noun phrase. On the other hand, the regular noun inflection is only limited to nouns at the right edge of the noun phrase. This is demonstrated using a type of coordinative compound found in Hindi. Then, I take the fact that nouns can take either the regular noun inflection or the so-called “adjectival” inflection as motivation for a unified analysis for both sets of suffixes. I demonstrate that after undoing certain phonological rules, the difference between the “adjectival” and regular noun inflectional suffixes can be summarized by saying that the additional morpheme only surfaces in the regular noun inflectional suffixes. Finally, I provide vocabulary entries and morphological operations that can capture the facts about the distribution of the various basic and additional morphemes.
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A. S. Hazaa, Muneer, Nazlia Omar, Fadl Mutaher Ba-Alwi, and Mohammed Albared. "Automatic Extraction Of Malay Compound Nouns Using A Hybrid Of Statistical And Machine Learning Methods." International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 6, no. 3 (June 1, 2016): 925. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v6i3.9663.
Анотація:
Identifying of compound nouns is important for a wide spectrum of applications in the field of natural language processing such as machine translation and information retrieval. Extraction of compound nouns requires deep or shallow syntactic preprocessing tools and large corpora. This paper investigates several methods for extracting Noun compounds from Malay text corpora. First, we present the empirical results of sixteen statistical association measures of Malay <N+N> compound nouns extraction. Second, we introduce the possibility of integrating multiple association measures. Third, this work also provides a standard dataset intended to provide a common platform for evaluating research on the identification compound Nouns in Malay language. The standard data set contains 7,235 unique N-N candidates, 2,970 of them are N-N compound nouns collocations. The extraction algorithms are evaluated against this reference data set. The experimental results demonstrate that a group of association measures (T-test , Piatersky-Shapiro (PS) , C_value, FGM and rank combination method) are the best association measure and outperforms the other association measures for <N+N> collocations in the Malay corpus. Finally, we describe several classification methods for combining association measures scores of the basic measures, followed by their evaluation. Evaluation results show that classification algorithms significantly outperform individual association measures. Experimental results obtained are quite satisfactory in terms of the Precision, Recall and F-score.
20
A. S. Hazaa, Muneer, Nazlia Omar, Fadl Mutaher Ba-Alwi, and Mohammed Albared. "Automatic Extraction Of Malay Compound Nouns Using A Hybrid Of Statistical And Machine Learning Methods." International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE) 6, no. 3 (June 1, 2016): 925. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijece.v6i3.pp925-935.
Анотація:
Identifying of compound nouns is important for a wide spectrum of applications in the field of natural language processing such as machine translation and information retrieval. Extraction of compound nouns requires deep or shallow syntactic preprocessing tools and large corpora. This paper investigates several methods for extracting Noun compounds from Malay text corpora. First, we present the empirical results of sixteen statistical association measures of Malay <N+N> compound nouns extraction. Second, we introduce the possibility of integrating multiple association measures. Third, this work also provides a standard dataset intended to provide a common platform for evaluating research on the identification compound Nouns in Malay language. The standard data set contains 7,235 unique N-N candidates, 2,970 of them are N-N compound nouns collocations. The extraction algorithms are evaluated against this reference data set. The experimental results demonstrate that a group of association measures (T-test , Piatersky-Shapiro (PS) , C_value, FGM and rank combination method) are the best association measure and outperforms the other association measures for <N+N> collocations in the Malay corpus. Finally, we describe several classification methods for combining association measures scores of the basic measures, followed by their evaluation. Evaluation results show that classification algorithms significantly outperform individual association measures. Experimental results obtained are quite satisfactory in terms of the Precision, Recall and F-score.
21
Lysak, Myroslava. "COMPOUND NOUNS WITH SOMATIC COMPONENT IN GERMAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE." Studia Linguistica, no. 16 (2020): 101–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/studling2020.16.101-114.
Анотація:
The article is dedicated to the study of semantics and functioning of compound nouns with a somatic component (CNSC) in the German language, in particular, the CNSC in German political discourse within the period from 2016 to 2020. Main semantic and functional features of CNSC are being determined. The article is focused on the role of CNSC in creating a pragmatic effect of publications within the political topics, looks into a powerful manipulative influence on the reader during the formation of a positive image of the politician or his deliberate discrediting, including the possibility of using individual compound nouns with a somatic component in order to ridiculize and undermine his image. The study explores metaphorical and metonymic transfers, on the basis of which the semantics of such compound nous with a somatic component in German political discourse is developing. The investigation presents the classification of a compound nouns with a somatic component into thematic subgroups within the thematic block “Politics”, the relationship of these groups in German-language mass media texts with political items, the semantic evolution of such compound nouns with a somatic component. Compound nouns with a somatic component with positive, negative, and ambivalent connotations which are actualized within the German political discourse, are also being explored. The studied lexical units belong to the dynamic and innovative part of the German lexicon, they represent the creativity of speakers, as well as their aspiration for their speech individualization and its emotional richness.
22
Bauer, Laurie. "When is a sequence of two nouns a compound in English?" English Language and Linguistics 2, no. 1 (May 1998): 65–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1360674300000691.
Анотація:
Constructions of noun + noun have been treated in two distinct ways in the literature: either they have been treated as compounds, or they have been treated as noun phrases with modifiers which happen to be nouns. Sometimes it is assumed that there are two distinct classes, which can be neatly distinguished. In this paper it is argued that the criteria which are usually assumed to distinguish between these two construction types do not draw a clear and consistent distinction between a syntactic and a morphological construction. Many of the criteria instead are indirect measures of listedness, which, it is argued, is not sufficient to show morphological status. Accordingly, it is claimed that the criteria to which reference is generally made do not allow us to distinguish between a class of noun + noun compounds and a class of noun + noun syntactic constructions. Rather the two should be treated as variants of a single construction (possibly morphological, possibly syntactic), at least until such time as a suitable coherent distinction can be properly motivated.
23
SZPAKOWICZ, STAN, FRANCIS BOND, PRESLAV NAKOV, and SU NAM KIM. "On the semantics of noun compounds." Natural Language Engineering 19, no. 3 (May 3, 2013): 289–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1351324913000090.
Анотація:
The noun compound – a sequence of nouns which functions as a single noun – is very common in English texts. No language processing system should ignore expressions like steel soup pot cover if it wants to be serious about such high-end applications of computational linguistics as question answering, information extraction, text summarization, machine translation – the list goes on. Processing noun compounds, however, is far from trouble-free. For one thing, they can be bracketed in various ways: is it steel soup, steel pot, or steel cover? Then there are relations inside a compound, annoyingly not signalled by any words: does potcontainsoup or is it for cookingsoup? These and many other research challenges are the subject of this special issue.
24
Ó SÉAGHDHA, DIARMUID, and ANN COPESTAKE. "Interpreting compound nouns with kernel methods." Natural Language Engineering 19, no. 3 (March 12, 2013): 331–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1351324912000368.
Анотація:
AbstractThis paper presents a classification-based approach to noun–noun compound interpretation within the statistical learning framework of kernel methods. In this framework, the primary modelling task is to define measures of similarity between data items, formalised as kernel functions. We consider the different sources of information that are useful for understanding compounds and proceed to define kernels that compute similarity between compounds in terms of these sources. In particular, these kernels implement intuitive notions of lexical and relational similarity and can be computed using distributional information extracted from text corpora. We report performance on classification experiments with three semantic relation inventories at different levels of granularity, demonstrating in each case that combining lexical and relational information sources is beneficial and gives better performance than either source taken alone. The data used in our experiments are taken from general English text, but our methods are also applicable to other domains and potentially to other languages where noun–noun compounding is frequent and productive.
25
Andersen, Torben. "External possession of body-part nouns in Jumjum: Possessor raising with possessum incorporation." Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 40, no. 2 (December 18, 2019): 171–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jall-2019-0008.
Анотація:
Abstract In Jumjum, a Western Nilotic language, some body-part nouns, and only such nouns, may be externally possessed in transitive and antipassive clauses. In these external possessor constructions, the possessor is either the object of a transitive verb or the demoted patient of an antipassive verb. The externally possessed body-part noun is partly incorporated into the verb, as shown by the following properties: It immediately follows the verb, its tone is determined by the final tone of the verb, it may combine with a nominalized verb in a kind of compound, and it does not exhibit the root-final nasalization that is prevalent in monosyllabic singular nouns in Jumjum, including internally possessed body-part nouns.
26
Lorenz, Antje, Andreas Mädebach, and Jörg D. Jescheniak. "Grammatical-gender effects in noun–noun compound production: Evidence from German." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 71, no. 5 (January 1, 2018): 1134–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2017.1310916.
Анотація:
We examined how noun–noun compounds and their syntactic properties are lexically stored and processed in speech production. Using gender-marked determiner primes ( dermasc, diefem, dasneut [the]) in a picture naming task, we tested for specific effects from determiners congruent with either the modifier or the head of the compound target (e.g., Teemasckannefem [teapot]) to examine whether the constituents are processed independently at the syntactic level. Experiment 1 assessed effects of auditory gender-marked determiner primes in bare noun picture naming, and Experiment 2 assessed effects of visual gender-marked determiner primes in determiner–noun picture naming. Three prime conditions were implemented: (a) head-congruent determiner (e.g., diefem), (b) modifier-congruent determiner (e.g., dermasc), and (c) incongruent determiner (e.g., dasneuter). We observed a facilitation effect of head congruency but no effect of modifier congruency. In Experiment 3, participants produced novel noun–noun compounds in response to two pictures, demanding independent processing of head and modifier at the syntactic level. Now, head and modifier congruency effects were obtained, demonstrating the general sensitivity of our task. Our data support the notion of a single-lemma representation of lexically stored compound nouns in the German production lexicon.
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BRANDÃO, Ana Paula. "Classifiers in Paresi-Haliti (Arawak)." MOARA – Revista Eletrônica do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Letras ISSN: 0104-0944 2, no. 43 (October 21, 2016): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.18542/moara.v2i43.3838.
Анотація:
ABSTRACT: This work presents the nominal classification system of Paresi. Paresi is an Arawak language, spoken in Mato Grosso (Brazil). The data comes from field work in the Formoso and Rio Verde communities. In Paresi, similar to other Arawak languages, nouns can be inalienable or alienable. Inalienable nouns are bound nouns that can only occur with the possessor prefixes or the non-possessed suffix. There are two types of inalienable nouns: simple inalienable nouns and inalienable nouns with a classifying function. These nouns have their meaning metaphorically extended in order to categorize a nominal referent. Furthermore, they can be part of a compound, be incorporated into a verb, and occur also with numerals and demonstratives. These bound nouns have functions similar to classifiers as described in the main literature on the types of nominal classification systems: Dixon (1986); Payne (1987); Derbyshire e Payne (1990); Grinevald (2000); Aikhenvald (2000); and Grinevald e Seifart (2004).KEY WORDS: Noun classification. Classifiers. Multiple classifiers.
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Nicoladis, Elena. "“Where is my brush-teeth?” Acquisition of compound nouns in a French–English bilingual child." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 2, no. 3 (December 1999): 245–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728999000346.
Анотація:
This study had two purposes: (i) to see if bilingual children can differentiate their languages with respect to the ability to form compound nouns and (ii) to test the validity of previous explanations of the acquisition of compounds. Compound nouns are right-headed in English and left-headed in French. If the French–English bilingual child in this study could differentiate between the two compounding rules, his compounds should show differential order based on the language of the semantic head. The analysis was based on the child's spontaneous compound productions from 2;9 to 3;3. The results showed that the language choice of the semantic head noun predicted the order of his compounds, suggesting that he had two distinct compounding rules. The pattern of errors made by the child cannot be accounted for by any previous explanation alone. It is suggested that children use various cues to learn compound structure.
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Stemberger, Joseph Paul. "Phonological reduction in the first part of noun compounds." Phonological and Phonetic considerations of Lexical Processing 8, no. 3 (December 31, 2013): 320–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ml.8.3.03ste.
Анотація:
Regular plural nouns rarely appear as the first member of a compound noun in English under any circumstances, while irregular plurals are more likely under certain conditions. One explanation holds that this is a consequence of the fundamentally different ways in which regular and irregular plurals are stored and processed, while an alternative explanation suggests that it may be rooted in phonological differences between regular and irregular forms. If the first part of a compound is phonologically restricted, the restrictions may interact with lexical access in a way that disfavors regular plurals (especially given that plurals of any sort are of low frequency in the first part of a compound, so processing is far from ceiling). This paper provides evidence from a case study of one child that the first part of a compound can be phonologically restricted compared to nouns when they appear as independent words. The data address compounds whose first elements are monomorphemic nouns, rather than plurals, but document the existence of phonological restrictions within compounds for at least one child This existence proof strengthens the hypothesis that differences between regular and irregular forms may derive partly from differences in phonological structure.
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Rosliana, Lina. "Kata Majemuk Dengan Unsur Pembentuk Kanji 手 (Te; Shu; Zu)". KIRYOKU 3, № 3 (4 грудня 2019): 157. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/kiryoku.v3i3.157-163.
Анотація:
This study discusses about “Japanese Compound Noun of Kanji手 (te; shu; zu)”. The purpose of this study is to desbribe the formation process and the meaning of compound noun which formatted by 手 (te; shu; zu) Kanji. The data of this research is obtained from “Shirabe Jisho” digital dictionary. The data were collected with ‘simak’ method and ‘catat’ technique. The data were analysed with ‘agih’ method and ‘bagi unsur langsung’ technique. Based on the analysis of the data, shows that compound noun which formatted by Kanji手 (te; shu; zu) has founded in two meanings, basic meaning and figurative meaning. Basic meaning compoun noun were founded on four kinds of structure, meanwhile figurative meaning of compound noun were founded on five kinds of structure. Kanji手 (te; shu; zu) has nine kinds of meaning when it combines to compoun noun.
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Rayendriani Fahmei Lubis, Fitriadi Lubis, Fitri Rayani Srg,. "The Correlation Between Students’ Ability In Identifying Nouns And Adjectives To Analyzing Compound Noun And Compound Adjectives Of TBI Students IAIN Padangsidimpuan." TAZKIR: Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu-ilmu Sosial dan Keislaman 1, no. 2 (December 1, 2015): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.24952/tazkir.v1i2.358.
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Dragicevic, Rajna. "On nouns functioning as prepositions." Juznoslovenski filolog, no. 68 (2012): 91–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/jfi1268091d.
Анотація:
This paper analyzes semantic transformations of nouns functioning as prepositions. The semantic characteristics of prepositions are discussed, and Belic? concept of adverbial origin and meaning of prepositions is reviewed. Contrary to usual perception that prepositions have mere grammatical meaning, it is concluded in this paper that they also have lexical meaning, like adverbs. Cognitive linguistics has so far dealt with lexical meanings of prepositions, and it is up to contemporary semantics to further explore and evolve this approach. Based on this fact that prepositions have lexical meaning, it is argued that nouns functioning as prepositions retain that lexical attribute though with different semantic value, rather than it adopts grammatical characteristics. It is concluded that semantic meaning of those nouns used as prepositions could be broken into two segments: adverbial (place) and nominal (partitive). The nouns which upon occasions may function as prepositions in Serbian language as a rule denote place and they always are used with genitive case (mostly partitive), and as a consequence they often have partitive meaning. In the sentences with nouns functioning as prepositions, the act expressed encompasses the part of the localizator or it is performed on its bounds, or near it. Which meaning would prevail depends on the noun, or verb, or noun in genitive case. A noun and its related preposition are treated as two lexemes in Serbian descriptive dictionaries, independent but close in meanings, since the preposition originated from a noun in a process defined by Irena Grickat as grammar polysemy, i.e. a polysemy with the grammatical result. In some grammar books identical forms of a preposition and nominative and accusative noun forms are defined as homophoria, and those prepositions and nouns are called homophores. Since homophoria is a type of homonymy, and homonymy excludes semantic relation between lexemes, the term homophoria had to be discarded. It is suggested in this paper that only few nouns in Serbian language can function as prepositions due to fact that only those few have possibility to combine semantically high-productive spaciality with partitivity (rarely possessiveness), as a result of their obligatory usage with partitive (sometimes, possessive) genitive. The usage of nouns as prepositions in Serbian language is slowly going out because their semantics is imprecise, and in certain circumstances difficult to differentiate, which means that the process of transformation of nouns into prepositions was not complete. Thus, more frequent today are compound prepositions formed by a real preposition and a noun (navrh, uvrh, podno). Their semantics is more distinctive and more precise due to real preposition as constituents.
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Shiraishi, Masato, and Masao Yokota. "On Semantic Interpretation of Japanese Compound Nouns." Journal of Natural Language Processing 4, no. 2 (1997): 57–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5715/jnlp.4.2_57.
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Nicoladis, Elena. "What compound nouns mean to preschool children." Brain and Language 84, no. 1 (January 2003): 38–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0093-934x(02)00519-9.
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Bolotova, E. V. "COGNITIVE AND ASPECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND NOUNS." Vestnik Bashkirskogo universiteta 8, no. 1 (2019): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.33184/bulletin-bsu-2019.1.19.
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Lee, Handong. "An Improved Keyword Extraction Including Compound Nouns." Asia-pacific Journal of Multimedia services convergent with Art, Humanities, and Sociology 7, no. 10 (October 31, 2017): 857–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.14257/ajmahs.2017.10.14.
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Gavranović, Valentina M. "COMPOUND NOUNS IN OLD AND MIDDLE ENGLISH." ZBORNIK ZA JEZIKE I KNJIŽEVNOSTI FILOZOFSKOG FAKULTETA U NOVOM SADU 5, no. 5 (December 31, 2015): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.19090/zjik.2015.5.57-67.
Анотація:
Ovaj rad bavi se dijahronim istraživanjem složenih imenica u staroengleskim i srednjoengleskim tekstovima Helsinškog korpusa. Prikupljeni materijal je analiziran, a potom su složene imenice klasifikovane prema vrsti reči kojoj pripadaju njihovi elementi. Obrasci složenih imenica oba perioda potom se porede, i razvojni tokovi opisuju na nekoliko nivoa: obrasci koji su prestali da se koriste za građenje novih složenica; obrasci koji su i dalje bili produktivni u srednjoengleskom periodu, i potpuno novi obrasci za građenje složenica u srednjoengleskom periodu.
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Huber, Elisabeth. "The car pet in the carpet. On the interaction of computer-linguistic methodology and manual refinement in researching noun compounds." Journal of Computer-Assisted Linguistic Research 3, no. 1 (July 16, 2019): 78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/jclr.2019.11316.
Анотація:
<p>Why does football combine productively with further nouns to form more complex expressions like football game, whereas seemingly comparable compounds like keyword only infrequently expand to more complex sequences? This project explores why some two-noun compounds are more readily available for forming triconstituent constructions than others. I hypothesize that the productivity of a two-noun compound in the formation of triconstituent sequences depends on the degree of entrenchment of that two-noun compound, assuming that only compounds that are entrenched to a certain degree are productive in forming more complex constructions. In order to test this hypothesis, a list of three-noun compounds in the English language needed to be compiled. The obvious thing to do would be to search for sequences of three nouns in POS-tagged corpora. However, since such automatized searches on the one hand do not allow the recall of all required instances and, on the other hand, often create results that are not precise enough, this requires substantial manual screening. Furthermore, in order to operationalize the concepts of entrenchment and productivity, it was necessary to count the usage frequencies of noun constructions. For this work, as well, the automatic elicitation of the data needed to be complemented by further manual selection in order to obtain correct usage frequencies. Both the complex automatic and manual work processes in the elicitation of the data will be presented in detail to give an impression of the extent of such a project.</p>
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Rakic, Stanimir. "On metaphorical designation of humans, animals, plants and things in Serbian and English language." Juznoslovenski filolog, no. 60 (2004): 147–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/jfi0460147r.
Анотація:
In this paper I examine compound names of plants, animals, human beings and other things in which at least one nominal component designates a part of the body or clothes, or some basic elements of houshold in Serbian and English. The object of my analysis are complex derivatives of the type (adjective noun) + suffix in Serbian and componds of the type noun's + noun, noun + noun and adjective + noun in English. I try to show that there is a difference in metaphorical designation of human beings and other living creatures and things by such compound nouns. My thesis is that the metathorical designation of human beings by such compounds is based on the symbolic meaning of some words and expressions while the designation of other things and beings relies on noticed similarity. In Serbian language such designation is provided by comples derivatives praznoglavac 'empty-headed person', tupoglavac 'dullard' debolokoiac 'callos person', golobradac 'young, inexperienced person' zutokljunac 'tledling' (fig), in English chicken liver, beetle brain birdbrain, bonehead, butterfingers, bigwig, blackleg, blue blood bluestocking, eat's paw, deadhead,fat-guts,fathead, goldbrick (kol) hardhat, hardhead, greenhorn, redcoat (ist), redneck (sl), thickhead, etc. Polisemous compounds like eat's paw lend support for this thesis because their designation of human beings is based on symbolic meaning of some words or expressions. I hypothesize that the direction and extend of the possible metaphorization of names may be accounted for by the following hierarchy (11) people - animals - plants - meterial things. Such hierarchy is well supported by the observations of Lakoff (1987) and Taylor (1995) about the role of human body in early experience and perception ofthe reality. Different restrictions which may be imposed in the hierarchy (11) should be the matter of further study, some of which have been noted on this paper. The compounds of this type denoting people have metaphorically meaning conected with some pejorative uses. These compounds refer to some psychological or characteral features, and show that for the classification of people such features are much more important than physical properties. While the animals and plants are classified according to some charecteristics of their body parts, people are usually classified according to psychollogical characteristics or their social functions. I have also noted a difference in structure between compounds designation animals and those designating plants and other things. The designation of animals relies more on metonymy, and that of plants and other things on metaphor based on comparision of noticed similarities. In the compounds designating animals, the nominal component relatively seldom refers to the parts of plants or other things. I guess that the cause may be the fact that the anatomy of plants is very different from the anatomy of animals. As a consequence the structure adjective + noun is much more characteristic of the compounds designating animals in English than the structure noun's + noun, and the same holds, although in a lesser degree for the compounds designating humans. It is also noticeable that in English compounds whose second component a part of body or clothes the first component rarely designates animals. On the other hand the compounds (9), in which the nominal head refers to some superordinate species, the first component often designates animal species, but usually of a very different kind. These data seem to lend support for Goldvarg & Gluksberg's thesis (1998) that metaforical interpretation is favoured if the nominal constituents denote quite different entities.
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Ferreira-Silva, Marília De Nazaré. "Construções nominais classificatórias em Parkatêje (Nominal constructions classifiers in Parkatêje)." Estudos da Língua(gem) 9, no. 1 (June 1, 2011): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.22481/el.v9i1.1136.
Анотація:
Baseado em uma abordagem funcional, este trabalho apresenta as características da formação de alguns nomes em parkatêjê, descrevendo um conjunto de nomes da língua que ocorrem em compostos. Tais nomes imprimem nos compostos, dos quais passam a fazer parte, um significado específico relacionado a aspectos, como forma, tamanho e espessura. São nomes tomados como referência na língua. alguns desses são inalienáveis, referentes a partes do corpo, utilizados em sentido metafórico. Outros não, como é o caso do nome farinha. Esse conjunto de nomes, embora funcione à maneira de classificadores, não apresenta a mesma extensão que tais formas usualmente têm.PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Parkatêjê. Nomes compostos. Termos de classe. Classificadores.
ABSTRACT Based in a functional approach, this paper presents characteristics of some noun formation processes in Parkatêjê and describes a set of nouns from Parkatêjê language which occurs in compounds. Those nouns give an specific meaning to the compounds in which they participate, related to aspects like shape, size and thickness. They are reference nouns in the language. Some of them are inalienable, related to human body parts, used in a metaphoric sense. Others ones are not the same like the noun related to flour. That set of nouns, although occurring like classifiers, does not present the same extension as classifiers do.KEYWORDS: Parkatêjê. Compound nouns. Class terms. Classifiers.
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Berg, Thomas. "The modification of compound nouns by three adjectives." Functions of Language 24, no. 2 (November 10, 2017): 139–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/fol.24.2.01ber.
Анотація:
Abstract This paper is the final instalment in a series of studies investigating the modification patterns in complex noun phrases (NPs) in English. It particularly focuses on the modification of two-noun compounds by three attributive adjectives. An analysis of all such NPs from the BNC reveals a strong preference for head modification over modifier modification, similar rates of convergent and divergent modification and the non-occurrence of crossed modification. The single most important factor influencing the modification patterns is functional status. The larger the number of adjectives modifying the head of the compound, the higher the frequency of the modification type (modulo a proximity effect). The absence of crossed modification is expected under the no-crossing constraint, which is understood here not as a formal but as a functional principle ensuring successful communication. The various factors can be tied together under the rubric of accessibility. The probability of selecting a particular modification target is argued to be a function of the accessibility of the nouns in an NP.
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Bui, Hanh My. "Synonymous in word-formatting of compound nouns in the modern Russian language." Science & Technology Development Journal - Social Sciences & Humanities 2, no. 4 (July 2, 2019): 5–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.32508/stdjssh.v2i4.499.
Анотація:
This article presents the results of the survey of synonymous in word-formation of compound nouns in the modern Russian language as a kind of formal-semantic relations between the components of compound nouns. Synonymous of Russian compound nouns can be found in subordinate components or in main components, or in both components of compound nouns. Synonymous of Russian compound nouns includes the following cases: synonymous of components in compound nouns and synonymous of compound nouns. In cases where compound nouns share the same main component and contain synonyms subordinate components, or which share the same subordinate component and contain synonymous main components, or contain both synonymous subordinate components and the synonymous main components, then the compound nouns themselves also become synonyms. Synonymous components have a distribution in the workplace of different meanings and productivity levels in the wordformation of compound nouns due to the influence of different factors such as semantics, style and morphology.
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Słapek, Daniel. "L'uso dell'articolo determinativo davanti ai singenionimi affettivi preceduti da un possessivo: un quadro statistico." Romanische Forschungen 133, no. 2 (June 15, 2021): 161–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3196/003581221832836666.
Анотація:
Among the most complex rules of Italian grammar are those relating to the use of the definite article with possessive adjectives followed by kinship names: in this case, the article is not employed, but its omission is subject to various structural, syntactical, and semantic restrictions concerning the noun / phrase in question. Grammar books usually highlight the use of the article with plural nouns or with the possessive form loro, but they are much less careful about other features of the kinship noun / phrase in which possessives are involved (compound nouns, nouns followed by prepositional complements, etc.). Furthermore, they disagree with regard to the syntax of affective names, in which case the use of the article is often considered optional. With this study, then, I intend to analyze the use of the definite article with possessive adjectives followed by the affective kinship names mamma and papà (therefore, nouns without suffixes) in the largest corpus of written Italian, Italian Web 2016 of the Sketch Engine system. The results of this research are interesting because, statistically, the use of the article depends on the possessive adjective used in the text (mio, tuo, suo, etc.) and, therefore, on the degree of the speaker's emotional involvement.
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Kuperman, Victor, and Avital Deutsch. "Morphological and visual cues in compound word reading: Eye-tracking evidence from Hebrew." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 73, no. 12 (July 20, 2020): 2177–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747021820940297.
Анотація:
Hebrew noun–noun compounds offer a valuable opportunity to study the long-standing question of how morphologically complex words are processed during reading. Specifically, in some morpho-syntactic environments, the first (head) noun of a compound carries a suffix—a clear orthographic marker of being part of a compound—whereas in others it is homographic with a stand-alone noun. In addition to this morphological cue, Hebrew occasionally employs hyphenation as a visual signal that two nouns, which are typically separated by a space, are combined in a compound. In a factorial design, we orthogonally manipulated the morphological and the visual cues and recorded eye movements of 75 proficient Hebrew readers while they read sentences with embedded compounds. The effect of hyphenation on reading times was inhibitory. This slow-down was significantly weaker in compounds where the syntactic relation between constituents was overtly marked by a suffix compared with compounds without a morphological marker. We interpret these findings as evidence that hyphenation is largely a redundant cue but morphological markers of compounding are psychologically valid cues for semantic integration of compounds. We discuss the implications of this finding for accounts of morphological processing.
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Schäfer, Martin, and Melanie J. Bell. "Constituent polysemy and interpretational diversity in attested English novel compounds." Semantics and Psychology of Complex Words 15, no. 1 (October 30, 2020): 42–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ml.00013.sch.
Анотація:
Abstract We explore variation in the interpretation of attested novel compound nouns in English, especially the contribution of constituent polysemy to this diversity. Our results show that effects of polysemy are pervasive in compound interpretation, contributing both to interpretational diversity and to perceived difficulty of interpretation. The higher the uncertainty about the concept represented by the head noun, based on existing compounds with that head, the greater the diversity of interpretations across speakers and the more difficult, on average, they find it to come up with a meaning.
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Silberztein, Max. "Les Groupes Nominaux Productifs et les Noms Composés Lexicalisés." Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 17, no. 2 (January 1, 1993): 405–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.17.2.06sil.
Анотація:
Our project is to describe French, using a finite vocabulary and a finite set of grammar rules. As far as noun phrases are concerned, we have to decide which noun phrases are to be treated by grammar rules, and which ones should be put in a lexicon. We present four criteria that have been used to build the electronic dictionary for compound nouns, (DELAC), which contains over 100,000 entries. The first two criteria (not compositional meaning, and institutionalized terms) yield purely lexicalized entries; the last two criteria (distributional restrictions and exceptional transformational analysis) concern certain noun phrases which could probably be treated by grammar rules; we prefer to put them in a lexicon for methodological reasons.
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Kuptsova, Tetiana, and Iryna Koliieva. "STRUCTURAL PECULIARITIES OF RAILWAY TERM FORMATION IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE." Naukovì zapiski Nacìonalʹnogo unìversitetu «Ostrozʹka akademìâ». Serìâ «Fìlologìâ» 1, no. 9(77) (January 30, 2020): 43–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.25264/2519-2558-2020-9(77)-43-46.
Анотація:
The structural peculiarities of the railway term formation is investigated in the article. It is demonstrated that the most common ways of the one component railway term formation are suffixation and prefixation. The prefixation-suffixation type is a less productive way of the word building. Compound words proved to form a large group of the railway terms. The relations among the components of a compound word represent a specific type of semantic and structural relations of the word in a word combination, where the terms which consist of «noun+noun», «adjective+noun» predominate. In the system of the English railway terminology among the component terms the most widespread are nouns that explains that nouns define processes, equipment, devices, and objects. This paper outlines some linguistic properties of technical terms. The article focuses on some linguistic features of a term. Being a linguistic object with the common and specific features of a language system a term has all lexical-semantic and formal features of the words and word combinations of a natural language. In the process of the affixation term building the semantics of a derived word is defined by an affix that is why an affix can bear a particular word building meaning. But having definite motivational relations between a derivative and a derived word the semantics of the derived word is not always determined by the meanings of its components. Deciding the semantics of a derived term many factors should be taken into consideration: conversion, the peculiarities of a compound word, polysemy etc. It should be underlined that morphological or affixation type of the term forming is based on the principles of word building of the literary language.
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Mercer, Patricia. "Tackling the Compound Noun." Die Unterrichtspraxis / Teaching German 20, no. 2 (1987): 294. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3530091.
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남미정. "Sai-siot and Compound Nouns in Middle Korean." Language & Information Society 18, no. ll (November 2012): 77–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.29211/soli.2012.18..002.
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Clark, Eve V., Susan A. Gelman, and Nancy M. Lane. "Compound Nouns and Category Structure in Young Children." Child Development 56, no. 1 (February 1985): 84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1130176.